" Babu aiki ba tare da anatomy ba ". Camillo Golgi, lambar yabo ta Nobel a fannin likitanci a shekara ta 1906, ya rubuta wannan a ƙarshen karni na XNUMX game da nazarinsa akan ƙwayoyin jijiya na tsakiya da na gefe. A wasu kalmomi, aikin yana sake fasalin siffar sel, sabili da haka duban dan tayi ya zama mahimmanci don fahimtar hanyoyin ilimin halittar jiki.
Ba daidai ba ne cewa mutum na farko da ya fahimci cewa jijiyoyi sun kasance da nau'i na igiyoyi kuma ba su wakiltar wani nau'i na tashoshi mai laushi a ciki, kamar yadda yake a cikin yanayin jini, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek a 1715.
Leeuwenhoek da microscope
leuwenhoek, Masanin gani na Dutch da masanin halitta, an gane shi a matsayin wanda ya kirkiro na'urar duban gani; don haka, wanda shi ne ya fara lura da shi, a tsanake da kuma dai-daita, wasu al’amura na halitta kamar zagayawa da jajayen qwayoyin jini a cikin capillaries, samuwar qwayoyin qwayoyin cuta na maza, ainihin farkon gano cutar. tsarin lamellar na ruwan tabarau, gano protozoa da kwayoyin cuta da ake kira "kananan dabbobi". Babu shakka ba kawai samun mafi kyawun ruwan tabarau na lokacin ba, wanda shi ma ya gina kansa.
Ga yadda Leeuwenhoek ya rubuta a cikin wata wasiƙa zuwa ga Royal Society of London a 1692, yana mai da martani ga suka daga wasu mutanen zamaninsa:
Ya ku ‘yan uwa, na sani sarai cewa rahotannin da nake rubutawa da aiko muku daga lokaci zuwa lokaci ba su dace da juna ba, kuma ana samun sabani a cikinsu; ta inda nake son sake cewa ina da al’adar tsayawa kan bayanan da nake da su har sai an fi sanina ko sai abin da na lura ya kai ni wani waje; kuma ba zan taɓa jin kunyar canza hanyata ba.
Ta haka aka haife microscope na zamani, wato, nazarin yanayi a ƙananan adadi, wanda har yanzu ya zama ɗaya daga cikin manyan hanyoyin bincike na binciken kimiyya na zamani. Amma don ƙarin fahimtar haifuwa da juyin halitta na wannan kimiyya, dole ne mu yi la'akari da ɗimbin tunani da binciken da aka yi cewa tun daga yunƙurin farko a Antiquity sun tsara ci gaban wannan ilimin zuwa abubuwan ban mamaki na kimiyyar zamani.
Haske a cikin al'adun Helenanci da na Musulunci
Duk da cewa na’urar na’ura mai ma’ana (microscope) wani sabon salo ne na kwanan nan, nazarin abubuwan haske ya sha’awar da yawa daga cikin manyan masu tunani na zamanin da kuma ya haifar da muhawara tsakanin mazhabobin tunani; Mun riga mun ba da bashi ga manyan masu tunani irin su Aristotle, ko Euclid, waɗanda suka rayu a tsakanin ƙarni na IV da na uku BC, waɗanda farkon tsarinsu wanda muka rubuta shaidar fahimtar hangen nesa da haskoki na haske. Tuni a cikin karni na XNUMX BC. C. Amfani da mashahuran madubin kona na Archimedes ya shahara a lokacin Yaƙi na Biyu, kodayake har yanzu ba a tabbatar da shi a tarihi ba.
Roma
Mafi rubuce-rubucen misalai game da wannan su ne wadanda zo daga duniyar Romawa. A haƙiƙa, an daɗe da yarda da amfani da Romawa na dā da filayen gilashin da ba su da ƙarfi don tattara hasken rana da samun wuta. Da alama fasahar Lens ta girmi wayewar Romawa, kamar yadda binciken da aka samu daga Knossos ya nuna, wanda ya kasance tun zamanin Bronze Age, tsakanin 3500 zuwa 1200 BC. c.
Pompeii
Bugu da kari ga crystal prisms na ban mamaki madaidaici da na yau da kullun (an yi amfani da su don karya haske cikin launuka na bakan), kuma sun fito ne daga tonowar tsohon pompeii kananan tasoshin zagaye, dan kadan, masu iya samar da hoto mai haske da girma. Abin takaici, kusan babu tushen wallafe-wallafen da ke magana akan waɗannan abubuwa azaman kayan aikin hangen nesa. Pliny dattijo ne ya ba da ita lokacin da sarki Nero, wataƙila mai ban mamaki, ya kasance yana kallon fadace-fadacen gladiator ta wajen kallonsu ta cikin wani katon Emerald mai gogewa.
Ottica da Catoptrica
Komawa ga Euclid, mun lura cewa shi ne marubucin sanannun postulates biyar na lissafi wanda ya ƙunshi ra'ayoyin batu, layi da jirgin sama; Waɗannan mahimman ra'ayoyin sun taru a ciki Ottica e Catotrica aiki inda abubuwa na hangen nesa suka ƙunshi, da nazarin tunani a cikin jirgin sama da madubi mai siffar zobe kuma, a karon farko, an bayyana ma'anar hasken gani ba tare da tsarin jiki ba. Wannan yana ba Euclid damar faɗaɗa hanyar da aka saba amfani da shi na nunin joometric zuwa fagen abubuwan mamaki.
Halin waɗannan axioms, duk da haka, yana da ƙarfi sosai ta hanyar ra'ayin cewa hangen nesa yana faruwa ta hanyar haskoki da ido ke fitarwa: ka'idar haske. Don isa ga ka'idar hangen nesa mafi ci gaba, ya zama dole a jira har zuwa karni na 965, tare da ka'idodin Arab Alhazen (1039-XNUMX). A cewar Alhazen. ido ba ya iya "ji" abu sai ta hanyar haskoki wanda ke aika ku da iyakataccen gudu; Dole ne hasken ya kasance ya kasance na ainihi domin lokacin da yake da tsanani zai iya lalata idanu kuma ya haifar da hotuna na biyu.
Ƙirƙirar microscope
Zai zama dole a jira har zuwa zamanin Baroque don ganin haifuwar madaidaicin madaidaicin madaidaicin na zamani. Ƙarni na 1609 lokaci ne mai albarka a ƙasashe da yawa don kimiyya gabaɗaya, a zahiri dole ne a ce ya ga juyin juya halin kimiyya na gaskiya tare da Bacon, Boyle, Copernicus, Leibniz da sauran su. Duk da haka, dole ne a ce cewa a cikin tarihin na'ura mai ba da hanya tsakanin hanyoyin sadarwa babu wani fitaccen kwanan wata kwatankwacin XNUMX, shekarar da ta kasance. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) an yi shi da na'urar hangen nesa mai rudimentary.
masu yin zane da microscopes
Bugu da ƙari kuma, ba daidai ba ne cewa Netherlands ita ce shimfiɗar jariri na kayan aiki kamar na'ura mai ma'ana, tun da a cikin karni na XNUMX wannan kasar ta wakilci muhimmiyar hanyar kasuwanci ga bangaren yadi kuma, a lokaci guda, don samar da yumbu da majolica. . Daga waɗannan tarurrukan na ƙarshe, watakila a matsayin samfur na biyu na tsarin masana'antu, a cikin dukkan yuwuwar an sami faɗuwar gilashin narkakkar wanda masu kera masana'anta da aka yi amfani da su azaman ƙananan gilashin ƙara girma don sarrafa rubutu mafi kyau a lokacin samar da lokaci. Wannan shi ne farkon amfani da Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), da farko manajan kantin sayar da masana'anta, wanda aka yi da ƙaƙƙarfan beads na gilashi; daga baya, mai yiwuwa ya biyo bayan sha'awar ilimin kimiyyar dabi'a wanda ya kasance mai karkata zuwa ga dabi'a.
Saboda haka, Van Leeuwenhoek's za a iya la'akari da na farko microscope, tun da shi an ƙirƙira shi na musamman kuma an inganta shi don amfani da dalilai na binciken kimiyya. Ba abin mamaki ba ne, an ambaci shi a lokacin a matsayin ƙwararren mai bincike wanda
A gaskiya ma, na'urar microscope ta Leeuwenhoek ta ƙunshi ruwan tabarau guda ɗaya da aka ɗora akan tallafin ƙarfe sanye take da ma'auni na musamman tare da madaidaicin mayar da hankali ta hanyar tsarin dunƙulewa, kuma yana ba da amfani da hasken wucin gadi. Wadannan abubuwa, ban da kafa, tun daga wannan lokacin. Tushen duk wani microscope na gani, zato wata hanya don nazarin al'amuran halitta tare da dandano na zamani da ya rigaya.
Arcana Nature
Leeuwenhoek ya kasance an rufe shi da amincewa a hukumance, dakin gwaje-gwajensa ya ziyarci masana kimiyya da masu siyasa daga ko'ina cikin duniya (shahuwar ziyarar Tsar Peter the Great na Rasha). Leeuwenhoek ya mutu yana da shekaru 91. a kan Agusta 26, 1723, bayan da ya ga Latin edition na cikakken tarin yawa haruffa da rahotanni, buga a 1722 karkashin sunan "Arcana Naturae."
Ƙoƙarin masana a cikin ƙarnuka masu zuwa za a keɓe gaba ɗaya don gina ƙarin ƙarfi na microscopes da tsarawa, rarrabuwa, da ƙididdige sabon microworld da aka gano. A cikin wannan ma'ana, gudummawar da Baturen Ingila Robert Hooke (1635-1703) ya bayar yana da mahimmanci, an fi tunawa da karatunsa akan elasticity fiye da na na'urar gani na gani. Hooke, cikakken malami, ya yi gyare-gyare ga na'urar hangen nesa, wanda ya dace da shi tare da sababbin tsarin gani da sabon tsarin haske. Wannan ya ba shi damar yin bincike da yawa, kamar ƙofofin da ke cikin kwalabe, waɗanda bango ya raba, wanda ya kira. sel. A cikin jayayya da Isaac Newton, mai yiwuwa masanin kimiyya mafi girma a lokacin, ya goyi bayan ra'ayin ka'idar ka'idar haske sabanin ka'idar corpuscular.
Juyin Halitta na microscope tsakanin ƙarni na XNUMXth da XNUMXth: daga microscope na gani zuwa microscope na lantarki.
Haɓakawa a hankali da aka gabatar a cikin mahaɗan microscopes da aka gina a ƙarni na XNUMX sun kasance da gaske game da tsarin injina. Ko da yake an samu wasu ci gaba a cikin fasahar masana'anta ruwan tabarau, aikin gani har yanzu yana da rauni. Wannan ya kasance saboda duka ingancin gilashin da manyan lahani guda biyu a cikin ruwan tabarau: aberration mai siffar zobe da aberration na chromatic, wanda ya haifar da blurry da hotuna masu ban mamaki.
Bugu da ƙari kuma, kowane haɓaka ko da yaushe kuma ya faru ne kawai akan tushen ƙwaƙƙwaran sabili da haka Sun kasance samfuran hannu.. Don gyarawa, waɗannan ɓarna suna buƙatar haɗuwa da ruwan tabarau da yawa kuma, sabili da haka, sai a tsakiyar karni na XNUMX ne za a iya aiwatar da irin waɗannan tsarin.
Ernst Abbe
Tun daga wannan lokacin, nazarin ka'idar da ci gaban fasaha sun tafi tare. Mafi wakilcin adadi na wannan lokacin shine Jamus Ernst Abbe (1840-1905), wanda ya canza microscope daga na'urar inganci zuwa kayan aiki mai ƙididdigewa; da yawa daga cikin ka'idodin da fasahar zamani na microscope optics da lenses gabaɗaya suka dogara akansa; Abbe ya yi haɗin gwiwa tare da Carl Zeiss (1816-1888) a cikin shahararrun bita na gani na Jena.
Ya samo kalmar, wacce ke ɗauke da sunansa (Lambar Abbe), don siffanta ƙarfin tarwatsa gilashin da kuma alaƙa da ƙudurin makasudin microscope a matsayin aikin buɗewar lamba. da yawa daga cikin ka'idodin da fasahar zamani na microscope optics da lenses gabaɗaya suka dogara akansa. Abbe ya yi haɗin gwiwa tare da Carl Zeiss (1816-1888) a cikin shahararrun bita na gani na Jena.
Agusta Kohler
Daga 1900 Agusta Kohler (1866-1948) kuma ya yi aiki a Jena, wanda ya yi magana da microphotography kuma ya kammala tsarin haskakawa a yanzu na duniya don na'urorin gani; A ƙarshen karni na XNUMX, ingantattun kayan aiki madaidaiciya da jujjuyawar sun riga sun wanzu a kasuwa.
A cikin 1903 Richard Zsigmondy (1865-1929) ya ƙirƙira abin da ake kira ultramicroscope, wanda ke ba da damar nazarin ƙwayoyin colloidal tare da girma ƙasa da tsayin haske; kuma a cikin shekaru da yawa da suka biyo bayan taki bai ragu ba: sababbin dabaru irin su bambancin lokaci, hanyoyin tsangwama da kuma hangen nesa Sun buɗe sabbin wuraren aikace-aikacen yayin da wasu sanannun fasahohin da aka ƙware, kamar su haske, tsangwama da tsangwama. radiation.
microscope na lantarki
Tuni a cikin 30s, tare da ma'anar ɓangarori na farko kamar su electron da kuma gabatar da dualism na kalaman / barbashi don bayyana halayensu, lokutan sun cika saboda iyakokin sararin samaniya na ƙananan microscopes, wanda aka sanya ta hanyar tsayin haske. , za a iya zarce a cikin mahallin sabon hangen nesa gaba daya: microscope na lantarki. Masanin kimiyyar lissafi na Jamus Ernst Ruska (1933-1906) da Max Knoll (1988-1897) ne suka gina microscope na farko a cikin 1969. Ruska da kansa, shekaru da yawa bayan haka, zai koma waɗancan lokutan a matsayin lokacin nazari da bincike mai fa'ida:
Bayan kammala karatunsa (1931), yanayin tattalin arziki a Jamus ya yi matukar wahala kuma da alama ba zai yiwu a sami matsayi mai gamsarwa a jami'a ko masana'antu ba. Saboda haka, na yi farin cikin samun damar ci gaba da ayyukana kyauta a matsayina na ɗalibin PhD a Cibiyar Ƙwararrun Ƙwararru...." .
Ƙarni na XNUMXth da kuma binciken binciken ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta
Har yanzu tsarin ci gaba ne na ka'idodin injiniyoyi na ƙididdigewa wanda ke ba da shawarar sabbin hanyoyin da za a binciko abubuwan da ba a taɓa gani ba a cikin ƙarin dalla-dalla, har ma da yin nisa har zuwa bayyana yanayin kusancin sa, wato, kwayoyin halitta da kwayoyin halitta. Ba kamar abin da ya faru a baya ba, a cikin 1980s an ɓullo da wasu manyan ra'ayoyi a cikin mahallin da aka riga aka buɗe a hankali kuma, abin da ba shi da kyau, an ba shi isasshen ɗan adam, fasaha da albarkatun tattalin arziki.
George Gamow
Yana daga ra'ayin George Gamow (wanda ya riga ya gano abin da ake kira Cosmic Background Radiation) na kasancewar tasirin rami, wanda aka tsara a cikin 1928, masana kimiyyar Jamus guda biyu, Gerd Binnig (1947) da Heinrich Rohrer (1933- 2013) an haife shi a cikin 1981, yayin da yake aiki a dakunan gwaje-gwaje na IBM a Zurich, na'urar hangen nesa ta farko.
Wannan microscope yana amfani da binciken allura mai kyau don gano raunin wutar lantarki tsakanin binciken da saman samfurin da ake nazari, wanda za'a iya bincikar shi zuwa wani ƙuduri a ka'idar ƙasa da girman atom da kwayoyin halitta. Wannan binciken ya ba wa masu bincikensa lambar yabo ta Nobel a fannin kimiyyar lissafi ta 1986. Abin mamaki ne cewa an ba da kyautar, maimakon a makare, ga Enrst Ruska ma. "Domin aikinsa na asali a cikin na'urorin lantarki da kuma ƙirar na'urar microscope na farko".
duban microscope
A cikin wannan mahallin, amma bisa la'akari da ƙarfin lantarki da atom na saman kan wani ɗan ƙaramin bincike da aka sanya a kusa, an ƙirƙira Atomic Force Microscope (1982) (tare da haɗin gwiwar Binning kansa), wanda halittarsa ta dogara da gudunmawar haɗin gwiwa. na sauran malamai, ciki har da Calvin Quate (1923-2019) da Christoph Gerber (1942). Wannan microscope ya ba da damar fadada aikace-aikacen duban ƙananan ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta zuwa nau'in samfurori masu faɗi, gami da na halitta.
Saboda yawan bambance-bambancen da aikace-aikace, wannan dabarar ita ce a yau, a cikin dukkan yuwuwar, mafi dacewa don nazarin saman a fagen nanotechnology. A yau, a gaskiya ma, ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta suna nufin samun ƙarin cikakkun bayanai game da yanayin saman da ƙananan microscopes na zamani suna haɗuwa, a cikin kayan aiki guda ɗaya, dabaru daban-daban don daidaitawa da nazarin samfurori na yanayi daban-daban.
Daga farfadowar na'urorin gani zuwa nanoscope
Ci gaban tushen Laser da ya faru a cikin rabin na biyu na karni na XNUMX yana wakiltar wani sabon ci gaba na filin gani na gargajiya, a gaskiya ma ana iya cewa ya zama mafi mahimmancin ganowa a cikin na'urorin gani bayan na X-ray. halaye na hasken Laser (matsananciyar daidaituwa, babban ƙarfi da tsayin raƙuman ruwa guda ɗaya) suna ba da izini guje wa abubuwan da ke haifar da ɓarna da ɓarna halayen hasken da fitulun fitulun gargajiya ke samarwa.
A shekara ta 1955, a lokacin karatun digirinsa na digiri a fannin lissafi, Marvin Lee Minsky (1927-2016), daya daga cikin wadanda suka kafa hankali na wucin gadi, ya yi nazari game da na'urar microscope, kayan aikin gani tare da ƙudurin da ba a taɓa gani ba da ingancin hoto don zamanin. Kamar yadda shi da kansa yake cewa:
A cikin 1956, Ina lasafta na, amma lambar sirri ta ƙare kafin wani ya gina na biyu. Ba mu ma damu da yin haƙƙin mallakan allon ko tambarin ba, muna tunanin su gaba ɗaya ƙirƙira ce. Yana da alama cewa bayyane bai dace da patent ba.
confocal microscope
Microscope confocal ya bambanta da tsari daga na'urar hangen nesa ta gargajiya ta hanyar amfani da tushen laser amma sama da duka ta kasancewar diaphragm tare da hanyar gani wanda ke ba da damar cire siginar da ke fitowa daga sassan sama da ƙasa da mayar da hankali ga samfurin, don haka samar da hoto a karon farko tare da bayanai masu girma uku. A hakikanin gaskiya, na'ura mai kwakwalwa mai kwakwalwa yana shiga dakunan gwaje-gwaje ne kawai a karshen shekarun 80 lokacin da fasahar Laser da kwamfuta suka zama mai sauƙin isa da ƙarfi. A halin yanzu kayan aiki ne mai mahimmanci a cikin binciken kimiyyar halittu.
Na'urar hangen nesa mai ma'ana tana wakiltar, don fannin na'urorin gani, ba makasudin fasaha ba amma mafari ne don bunƙasa sabbin dabarun bincike dangane da fasahar Laser da amfani da sabbin alamomin kyalli, irin su TIRF (Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence) microscopy, Live Cell Imaging, confocal spectral microscopy, amfani da fasaha daban-daban na hoto, morphofunctional bincike ciki har da FRAP (Fluorescence farfadowa da na'ura Bayan Photobleaching), FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Canja wurin), FLIM (Fluorescence Lifetime Hoto), FCS (Fluorescent Correlation Spectroscopy) da kuma a karshe amfani da multiphoton Laser don samun wani gagarumin karuwa a ikon shigar da haske a cikin samfurin. .
STED microscope
Shekarun farkon wannan karni kuma suna da alamar haɓakar sabbin dabaru masu fasaha waɗanda suka tura ƙudurin gani sama da iyakokin da yanayin haske ya ƙulla. A gaskiya ma, muna magana ne game da babban ƙuduri, wanda aka samu godiya ga manyan hanyoyi guda uku: lSTED microscope wanda Stefan Hell ya haɓaka (1962), Nobel Prize in Chemistry a 2014, tsararrun haske microscopy da aka haife shi ga Mats Gustafsson (1960-2011). ), da microscopy na waje, wanda Xiaowei Zhuang ya gabatar a cikin dakunan gwaje-gwaje na Harvard (1972), wanda zai iya hango kwayar halitta guda ɗaya tare da ƙuduri sau 10 fiye da na gani na gani na gargajiya.
Gabatar da fasaha na babban ƙuduri ya haifar da na'urorin haske na zamani, wanda saboda haka ana iya kiran su da hankali "nanoscopes". tattaunawa akai-akai tare da microscopes na lantarki don ingantacciyar haɗakar nazarin halittu. A yau, microscope kayan aiki ne da ba za a iya maye gurbinsa ba a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje kuma ya zama ainihin alamar binciken kimiyya.
Makomar microscope
Na'urar hangen nesa ba shakka ya kasance ɗaya daga cikin manyan juyin juya hali a tarihin kimiyya, wanda ke nuna alamar haihuwar ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta, cytology, da ilimin halitta. Giant tsallen da binciken likita ya ɗauka a cikin shekaru 100-150 na ƙarshe, tare da duk abin da ya biyo baya, da ba za a yi tunanin ba tare da na'urar hangen nesa ba.
Sabbin iyakokin fasaha sun riga sun ga auratayya tsakanin bayanan da na'urar daukar hoto ke samarwa da kuma amfani da bayanan wucin gadi. Wannan sabon horo, wanda ake kira Jin Ilimi, yana da ikon yin nazarin hotunan da aka ɗauka tare da na'urori masu ma'ana kuma yana iya canza ƙaƙƙarfan gani da kuma buɗe hanya don sababbin binciken. Amma Mats Gustafsson, ɗaya daga cikin uban ƙwaƙƙwaran ƙuduri, ya riga ya gane wannan duka sa’ad da ya ce: “Da zarar an ƙara kwamfuta tsakanin na’urar gani da ido da ɗan adam, wasan ya canza. A lokacin. Na'urar hangen nesa ba na'urar da dole ne ta samar da hoton da za'a iya fassarawa kai tsaye. Yanzu na'urar ne don yin rikodin bayanai."
A wannan gaba, zai zama halal don tambaya ta yaya zai yiwu a je a cikin bincike da nazarin microscopy: duniyar da ba ta da kyau ta ƙunshi tafki na bayanai kusan maras ƙarewa: kwayoyin halitta suna da kaddarorin tsari, sinadarai, da na zahiri waɗanda ke nuna tambarin da aka bayar ta asali ta asali da daidaiton dokokin zahiri. sun taso ne a farkon lokacin duniya da kuma bambance-bambancen da za a iya samu, mafi yawansu har yanzu sun fi karfin fahimtarmu, sun zama nau'in duniya da ba za a iya misaltuwa ba da muke gani.
