Kulesi sihloko sikulethela ulwazi olufanele mayelana ne- ubuciko be-mesopotamian. Futhi, uyini umsuka wempucuko yaseSumeriya nokuthi yayilithuthukisa kanjani isiko layo ngocwaningo nangobuciko baseMesophothamiya?Qhubeka ufunda futhi uthole okwengeziwe!
Ubuciko baseMesopotamiya
Ubuciko baseMesophothamiya bubhekisela esifundeni noma endaweni etholakala eMpumalanga Ephakathi futhi itholakala phakathi kwemifula iTigris ne-Ewufrathe, yingakho igama elithi Mesophothamiya elihunyushwe ngesiSpanish lisho ukuthi "Izwe eliphakathi kwemifula emibili" le ndawo iyonaba kuyo yonke indawo. Indawo yayo yomibili imifula, enezindawo ezivunde kakhulu, futhi izoqondana nezindawo ezingezona eziwugwadule ezitholakala e-Iraq yanamuhla. Nakuba igama elithi Mesopotamiya lalisetshenziswa ezikhathini zasendulo.
Kungakho kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi ubuciko baseMesophothamiya buyoba ukuhlukaniswa kwendawo kanye nokulandelana kwezenzakalo zedolobha ngezikhathi zasendulo, ngoba amasiko amaningi abhekisela kuzinkulumo zobuciko ezenzeka eMesophothamiya. Kusukela enkathini yeNeolithic etholakala ngekhulu lesithupha BC kwaze kwaba nokuwa kweBabiloni ngokumelene namaPheresiya ngonyaka wama-539 BC.
Phakathi naso sonke lesi sikhathi, kwathuthuka impucuko ehlukahlukene, enjengamaSumeri, ama-Akkadian, amaBhabhiloni (noma amaKhaledi), amaKassite, amaHurrian (amaMittani) nama-Asiriya (ubuciko base-Asiriya). Ngemva kwezinkulungwane zeminyaka edlule, kwase kunesizinda esikhulu saseMesopotamiya Esezansi naseMesophothamiya Esenhla kuso sonke isifunda. Kuze kube yilapho kuqala ukwakheka koMbuso WasePheresiya, owawunendawo ephakeme kakhulu kunoMbuso ka-Alexander Omkhulu kanye nobuGreki.
Ubuciko baseMesophothamiya babunemizila ehlukahlukene yokuxhumana ngisho nangaphambi kwesikhathi samaPheresiya. Yayibuye ibe nokuxhumana nenkathi yamaRoma kanye nobuciko bobuGreki, kwakunezindlela eziningi zokuxhumana, phakathi kwazo okugqamayo, ukuhweba kanye nempi.
Kwakukhona futhi ukuxhumana phakathi kobuciko baseMesophothamiya nezimpucuko ezihlukahlukene ezazihlala eMpumalanga Eseduze Yasendulo, njengobuciko bempucuko yamaHeti, ubuciko bempucuko yaseFenike kanye nobuciko bempucuko yasendulo yakwa-Israyeli. Ezinye izimpucuko ezazigqama ngaleso sikhathi ngobuciko bazo futhi zazixhumene nobuciko baseMesopotamiya ubuciko baseNdiya, ubuciko baseGibhithe, ubuciko beLevant yaseMedithera kanye nezindawo eziningi zesifunda sase-Asia Ephakathi.
Ezobuciko zaseMesophothamiya, kwakukhona ukusabalalisa okukhulu kwamasiko, kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezinto ezihlukahlukene kanye namasu obuciko ekuthuthukiseni imisebenzi yobuciko ehlukene, okwaba nesandla ekuthuthukisweni kwesayensi okuningi, okugqamisa amahhavini ababumbi ayengaphezulu. esebenza kahle futhi yabe isivumela ukuklanywa kweziko ezicwebezelisiwe ze-ceramic kanye neziko lokusansimbi.
Phakathi kwentuthuko yezenhlalo namasiko emphakathini waseMesopotamiya kwaba ukuzalwa komphakathi ozinikele ekubhaleni nasezinkolweni, kwasungulwa izikhungo ezazibuswa uhulumeni oqondisa leli dolobha. Ochwepheshe abaningi bezobuciko baye baqinisekisa ukuthi impucuko eyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu.
Njengamanje, ubuciko obuningi baseMesophothamiya bugcinwe, kodwa kuyisihloko esilethe impikiswano enkulu ngoba abavubukuli abaningi kanye nezazi zasempumalanga, kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-XNUMX, bathatha izingcezu eziyigugu kakhulu zobuciko baseMesophothamiya eminyuziyamu ehlukene ezwenikazi laseYurophu futhi. e-United States..
Kungakho njengamanje kukhona amaqoqo obuciko baseMesopotamiya eminyuziyamu eminingana yaseYurophu, okuhlanganisa neBritish Museum eseLondon, iLouvre Museum eParis kanye nePergamon Museum eseBerlin.
Nakuba okwamanje okutholakele okwenziwe ngobuciko baseMesophothamiya kuqondise imisebenzi ku-National Museum of Iraq, kodwa impi ekhona kulelo zwe ibangele ukuwohloka nokuphangwa kwezingcezu ezikhona ezinenani elingekho ngaphansi kwezinkulungwane ze-10 zaseMelika. amadola.
Umlando weMesophothamiya
Empucukweni yesifunda saseMesophothamiya phakathi neminyaka engu-6000 no-5000 a. C. imfuyo nezolimo zabekwa, lokho kwakuwukungena enkathini ye-Neolithic lapho amasu amasha okukhiqiza ayeklanywa endaweni yokuqala ye-Neolithic asetshenziswa.
Lawa maqhinga athuthukiswa futhi asakazwa kuso sonke isifunda, okugqama phakathi kweMesophothamiya Ephansi, okuholele ekutheni amadolobha amaningi athuthuke kakhulu kunamanye, okugqame kuwo idolobha laseBuqras, Umm Dabaghiyah kanye neYarim, kwase kuba amadolobha aseTell es-Sawwan. kanye noChoga Mami, evulela isiko elisha elalibizwa ngokuthi Umm Dabaghiyah.
Kamuva lesi siko sathathelwa indawo amasiko e-Hassuna-Samarra, atholakala phakathi kuka-5600 BC kuya ku-5000 BC futhi phakathi kuka-5600 BC kuya ku-4000 BC, kwavela isiko lamaHalaf. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi cishe ngonyaka wama-3000 a. C esifundeni saseMesophothamiya kwaqala ukusetshenziswa. Kodwa inhloso yayo enkulu kwakuwukugcina ama-akhawunti okuphatha omphakathi.
Imibhalo yokuqala eyatholwa abavubukuli yenziwa ngobumba, ukusetshenziswa kobumba kwakuvame kakhulu endaweni yaseMesopotamiya, ukubhala kwakhiwe imidwebo eminingana ngendlela yemigqa eyaziwa ngokuthi ama-pictograms.
Impucuko yasemadolobheni esifundeni saseMesophothamiya yaqhubeka nokuthuthuka kwezobuchwepheshe ngesikhathi se-Obeid esiphakathi kuka-5000 BC no-3700 BC. Le ntuthuko yezobuchwepheshe igxile ekuthuthukisweni okusha kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya bezinto zobumba kanye nasekuniseleni ngenkasa. Amathempeli okuqala asemadolobheni okukhulekela onkulunkulu nawo aqala ukwakhiwa.
Uma isikhathi se-Obeid sesiphelile, isikhathi se-Uruk siyazalwa. Ngalesi sikhathi, impucuko yasemadolobheni yaseMesopotamiya yaqala ukuzinza esifundeni, yenza intuthuko enkulu yezobuchwepheshe njengesondo nokubala. Lapho izibalo zazibhalwe phansi ezibhebheni zobumba ukugcina umyalelo. Lokhu kwakuyoba izethulo zokuqala ezazizobhalwa eMesophothamiya.
AmaSumeriya
Ngonyaka ka-3000 BC, impucuko yamaSumer yaqala ukuthuthukisa amadolobha amaningana engxenyeni engezansi yeMesopotamiya, okwakugqama phakathi kwawo i-Eridu, i-Uri, i-Ea, i-Uma, iKish, iLagash ne-Uruk, eyaziwa nangokuthi izifunda zedolobha. .
Umnotho oyinhloko kanye nomthombo wokudla wala madolobha wawusekelwe ekuniseleni ngenkasa. Le mizi yayibuswa inkosi ephelele eyayizoba nesikhundla esaziwa ngokuthi umfundisi. Ngoba wayenamandla okuxhumana nonkulunkulu nokuvikela amadolobha ezingozini zemvelo ezihlukahlukene.
Emlandweni wamaSumer, kuyagqama ukuthi kwakuyimpucuko ekubhalweni kwe-cuneiform futhi akha amathempeli amakhulu okukhulekela onkulunkulu bawo, okwakusho intuthuko enkulu kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya.
Isikhathi Sobukhosi Bama-Archaic
Ngenkathi impucuko yase-Uruk eyayihlala esifundeni saseMesophothamiya izuza intuthuko enkulu emasikweni nobuciko baseMesopotamiya, yayizala isiko lamaSumeri. Ngenxa yokuthi izindlela eziningi ezazisetshenziswa ekuniseleni ngenkasa eMesophothamiya, ezomnotho nezobuciko zazisetshenziswa emadolobheni ahlukahlukene nasezindaweni ezintsha ezazisetshenziswa kwezinye izifunda zaseMesophothamiya.
Amadolobha amaningi amasha azogqama ngoba akha izindonga. Kodwa ucwaningo olwenziwa abavubukuli luye lwachaza ukuthi lwaphakanyiswa izimpi ezihlukahlukene ezazikhona ngaleso sikhathi. Iphinde iqokomise ukubhala njengobuciko baseMesophothamiya, njengoba babusetshenziswa endaweni yokuphatha, njengasohlelweni lokubhala okunikezelwe ezithombeni abazinikela konkulunkulu babo.
Kuyadingeka ukugcizelela ukuthi kunezinhlu eziningi zasebukhosini baseSumeriya. Kodwa lo mlando awubhalwe kahle kakhulu kwazise akwaziwa kakhulu ngoba miningi imibuso enezinsuku ezingenzeki futhi ngekhulu le-XNUMX BC amakhosi aqala ukwenza izinhlu zobukhosi kwazise lawo makhosi ayefuna ukwazi ukuthi inzalo yawo yayivela ezikhathini zamaqhawekazi.
Yingakho amakhosi amaningi obukhosi bakudala engase abe yiqiniso kodwa amanye amaningi awalona, asungulwa ngamanye amakhosi futhi abukho ubufakazi obungokomlando bokuthi akhona futhi abekho abantu ababonakalayo bala makhosi.
Umbuso wama-Akkadian
Ngawo lowo nyaka 3000 BC, impucuko yamaSemite yaziwa njengabahambi ababehlala enhlonhlweni yase-Arabia, futhi basakazekela enyakatho bathola impucuko entsha njengama-Amori, amaFenike, ama-Israyeli nama-Aramu. Ngenkathi isendaweni yaseMesopotamiya abantu abangamaSemite, impucuko eyayinethonya elikhulu kwakungama-Akkad.
Ngonyaka wama-2350 ngaphambi kokuzalwa kukaKristu, inkosi eyaziwa ngokuthi uSarigoni I wase-Akkad, eyayinozalo lwama-Akkad, yahlasela idolobha laseKishi yathatha amandla okulibusa. Into yokuqala ayenza kwatholakala inhlokodolobha entsha. Ayibiza ngokuthi i-Agade futhi lokhu kwabangela ukuba kuqalwe izimpi ezimbalwa zokunqoba wonke amadolobha aseSumeri. Wanqoba inkosi yalemizi eyaziwa ngokuthi yiLugalzagesi.
Konke lokhu kwakwaziwa njengombuso wokuqala emlandweni womhlaba futhi wawuzoholwa abalandela uSarigoni okwakumelwe babhekane nokuvukela okwakuqhubekayo okwenziwa ukuze kuketulwe uMbuso. Phakathi kwamakhosi agqama kakhulu kwakukhona umzukulu wakhe nomnqobi uNaram-Sin. Kwakuyinkathi lapho isiko lamaSumer lehla futhi isiko lama-Akkadian laphakama.
Kodwa ngonyaka wezi-2220 ngaphambi kokuzalwa kukaKristu uMbuso wawa ngenxa yokuhlubuka okuningi okwakumelwe babhekane nakho kanye nokuhlasela kwemizulane kwama-Amori namaGutis, lapho umbuso uwa umbuso wonke wawubuswa yilezi zizwe. Lokho kwathuthukisa isiko nobuciko bayo ezifundeni ezihlukahlukene zedolobha laseMesophothamiya. Lapho agcizelela khona kakhulu kwakusedolobheni elikhulu i-Agade lapho yonke indawo ezungezile yacekelwa phansi.
Imilando yaseSumeri esukela ngaleso sikhathi ichaza lezi zenzakalo njengezingezinhle kakhulu emphakathini njengeqembu lamaqaba namadrako asezintabeni abeza edolobheni ukuzobhubhisa yonke into esendleleni yawo. Kodwa abanye abavubukuli baye babonisa ukuthi leli qiniso lalingelona libi kakhulu, ngoba emadolobheni amaningana kwakukhona ukuchuma okukhulu kwamasiko nobuciko baseMesopotamiya.
Isibonelo esicacile saleli qiniso senzeka edolobheni elaziwa ngokuthi iLagash, ngesikhathi sokubusa kombusi uGudea, owayegcizelela ubuciko baseMesophothamiya, ephakamisa izinga lazo njengoba imisebenzi eyayenziwe kuleli dolobha iLagash yayinezinto ezisezingeni eliphezulu kakhulu. kusukela emadolobheni akude njengeLebanoni noma i-diorite, igolide ne-carnelian evela eSigodini sase-Indus.
Ngenxa yalesi sici, abavubukuli bacabanga ukuthi ukuhweba kwakungekho, ngoba ukudluliswa kwalolu lwazi kuzobiza kakhulu. Yingakho abantu abaningi ababehlala emadolobheni aseningizimu babefuna ukuthenga inkululeko yezihlobo zabo ukuze bathole izinto ezibalulekile zokuthuthukisa umnotho nobuciko baseMesopotamiya. Amadolobha ase-Uruk nase-Uri phakathi nekhulu lesi-XNUMX nelesi-XNUMX aphumelela kakhulu futhi ubukhosi bawo babuhlonishwa kakhulu.
I-Renaissance yaseSumeri
Esibhebheni esitholwe abacwaningi kuthiwa u-Utu-hegal, owayeyinkosi yedolobha lase-Uruk. Ubani obhalwe eminyakeni engu-2100 BC ngoba wahola ibutho lakhe ukuze anqobe ababusi bedolobha laseGutis endaweni yaseSumeri. Kodwa wayengazi ukuthi angalisebenzisa kanjani ngokunenzuzo lempumelelo kusukela ngemva nje kokuba ekhishwe ubukhosi u-Uri-Nammu, owayeyinkosi yedolobha lase-Uri.
Khona-ke leli dolobha laba idolobha elinamandla kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya phakathi nobukhosi besithathu base-Uri. Umbuso wamaSumeri owavela ngobukhosi wathatha isikhathi eside njengombuso wozalo lukaSarigoni.
Ngemva kwalokhu, inkolelo-mbono yoMbuso obumbene yamila esifundeni saseMesophothamiya lapho amakhosi ajwayelana nesimiso sikahulumeni wama-Akkadian ayezibiza ngokuthi “amakhosi aseSumer nase-Acad” edolobheni lase-Ur-Nammu lapho umbuso uzobe use. indodana kaShulgi eyayibhekene nombuso wasempumalanga wakwa-Elamu kanye nezizwe ezihlala imizulane zamaZagros.
Khona-ke indodana yakhe u-Amar-Suen ithatha amandla, bese kuba umfowabo ogama lakhe linguShu-Sin ethatha amandla. Ukuqeda nge-Ibbi-Sin. Njengenkosi yesithathu ngokulandelana esihlalweni sempucuko yamaSumerians. Kodwa kulokhu kubusa impucuko yama-Amori avela e-Arabiya aba namandla ngenxa yokuthuthuka kobuchwepheshe namasiko kuze kube ngo-2003 BC umbuso wokugcina wamaSumeri uwela esifundeni saseMesophothamiya.
Khona-ke isiko eliyogcwala esifundeni saseMesophothamiya liyoba elempucuko yaseBabiloni eyazuza njengefa izici namasiko amaningi amaSumer.
Ubukhosi bama-Amori
Lapho ubukhosi bomuzi wase-Uri buwa, kulokhu umlando wobumnyama ofanayo awuzange uphindwe kubantu, njengoba lesi sigaba sasiphawulwe ngokukhuphuka kozalo lwama-Amori ayenamasiko amakhulu futhi ayekulungele ukuhlala endaweni. imvelo engcono.impucuko.
Phakathi neminyaka yokuqala engu-50 yempucuko, ama-Amori ayehlala edolobheni elaziwa ngokuthi i-Isin, elazama ukuziphoqa kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya kodwa kwanhlanga zimuka nomoya. Kwathi ngonyaka ka-1930 ngaphambi kokuzalwa kukaKristu, amakhosi edolobha laseLarsa aqala ukuhlasela amanye amadolobha esifundeni, ahlasela idolobha lase-Elamu kanye neDiyala njengenhloso yawo enkulu, agcina ngedolobha lase-Uri.
Kodwa umgomo awuzange ufezwe ngokugcwele njengoba engazange alawule ngokuphelele isifunda saseMesophothamiya. Kodwa yathola ubukhosi obucacile embusweni kaHammurabi wasePaleo-Babylonian, kodwa ubukhosi bayo bawela phakathi kuka-1860 no-1803 BC. C njengoba idolobha lase-Uruk nebutho lalo linquma ukubekela inselele amandla e-hegemonic ababenawo ngobuholi ababusebenzisa kuso sonke isifunda.
Edolobheni lase-Elamu, isiko lama-Akkadian lenza umbuso waleli dolobha uqine kakhulu, owangeniswa kakhulu kwezombangazwe ezazisetshenziswa esifundeni saseMesopotamiya.
Ngenkathi kusenyakatho yeMesophothamiya eyaziwayo kwavela amadolobha anamandla avuselelwa uhwebo nomnotho owawuqhutshwa phakathi kwamadolobha aseningizimu nalawo ase-Anatolia, lapho umbuso wase-Asiriya uzogqama khona, lapho uyokwanda kuyo yonke indawo kuze kube yilapho ufinyelela khona. IMedithera eholwa inkosi yaseShamshi-Adad I.
Umbuso we-paleobabylonian
Ngokophenyo olwenziwa, uHammurabi wangena esihlalweni sobukhosi ngonyaka ka-1792, lapho umuzi waseBabiloni wawungabalulekile kangako esifundeni saseMesophothamiya. Ngaleso sikhathi uFaro uzoqala inqubomgomo yokwandisa esifundeni sonke. Kwelinye lamasu akhe okuqala kwakuwukukhulula idolobha lase-Uri ngonyaka ka-1786.
Ngemva kokubhekana nebutho lakhe nokuketula inkosi yaseLarsa, eyaziwa ngokuthi uRim-Sin. Uphinde wathatha izintambo zokulawula idolobha i-Uruk ne-Isin. Ngosizo lwamabutho ahlukahlukene ajoyina umsebenzi wakhe. Ngonyaka ka-1762, umfelandawonye owawuphakathi kwamadolobha asogwini loMfula iTigris wanqotshwa.
Kangangoba ngemva kweminyaka embalwa banquma ukuhlasela futhi banqobe idolobha laseLarsa ngemva kwalokhu kubusa inkosi yayikwazi ukuzimemezela njengombusi wedolobha laseSumer no-Acard. Lesi sihloko ebesisetshenziswe ngezikhathi lapho iSargón de Acad iqondise khona. Futhi yaqala ukusetshenziswa yinkosi ngayinye eyaqala ukuhlala esihlalweni sobukhosi ngokunqoba noma ngokulandelana. Kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya.
Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, umfanekiso wamakhosi wanda, kusukela ekunqobeni okuhlukahlukene kodwa futhi nokusetshenziswa komsebenzi wokwakha nokugcinwa kwezinhlelo ezihlukahlukene zokunisela kanye nokucaciswa kwesimiso semithetho okwakufanele igcwaliseke njengomthombo- ikhodi ye-Hammurabi eyaziwayo.
Ngonyaka ka-1750 BC, inkosi u-Hammurabi yafa, inikela umbuso wayo wonke endodaneni yayo u-Samsu-Iluna, okwadingeka abhekane nezimpi eziningana ngokumelene nama-Kassite imizulane. Lesi simo siphindaphindwa izikhathi eziningana kwaze kwaba unyaka ka-1708 BC, ekubuseni kuka-Abi-Eshuh. Izinkinga eziningi zomhambi wezindlu zase zandile.
Le ngcindezi yayivamile kulo lonke ikhulu leshumi nesikhombisa BC, umbuso wawuguquguquka kwaze kwaba yilapho ukuhlasela kokugcina kwenkosi yamaHeti, uMursili I, kuxazulule umbuso owawela ngaphansi kwamandla amaKassite ayimizulane.
Izici Zomlando Wobuciko BaseMesophothamiya
Ukuthuthukisa kancane umlando wobuciko baseMesophothamiya, kufanele sifunde izifundo zokuqala kanye nophenyo olwenziwa ngonyaka we-1786 ngumfundisi owaziwayo kanye nojenene uJoseph de Beauchamps, okwadingeka alinde iminyaka eminingana ukuze akwazi ukuthwala. ukumba okokuqala kwangempela esifundeni saseMesophothamiya.
Nakuba lokhu kumbiwa kwakugqugquzelwa inxusa laseFrance elaziwa ngokuthi uPaul Émile Botta, owayesedolobheni laseMotul. Bagxile ekuqhubeni imivubukulo edolobheni lase- tell Kuyunjik, kodwa abazange banikeze imiphumela emihle njengoba laliseduze nedolobha laseNineve futhi isakhamuzi sasikisela ukuba baludlulisele uphenyo kanye nokumbiwa baqhubeke enyakatho yedolobha lapho bathola khona imisebenzi yedolobha. I-Mesophothamiya njengoba yayiyimifanekiso eqoshiwe yaseSiriya.
Lokhu kwathathelwa indawo enye yezinto zokuqala ezibaluleke kakhulu ezatholwa emidwebeni yaseMesophothamiya eyayiqanjwe ngeBhayibheli kuphela. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi kuqhubeke, uphenyo oluhlukahlukene kanye nokumba kwaqala ukuthola ubufakazi obengeziwe bobuciko namasiko aseMesopotamiya.
Lokhu kwaphinde kwaqala umbango phakathi kwamaFulentshi namaNgisi. Njengoba amaNgisi, ophenyweni ayelwenza, akwazi ukuthola isiqalo somtapo wolwazi wase-Ashurbanipal, kuyilapho amaFulentshi ekwazile ukuthola isigodlo sikaSargon II eKhorsabad.
Kodwa lokhu okutholakele kwaba nesiphetho esidabukisayo njengoba imisebenzi eminingana yobuciko baseMesophothamiya kanye nezinsalela eziningi zesiko zathathwa ngesikebhe ezansi noMfula iTigris. Lo mkhumbi wacwila futhi amabhokisi angaphezu kuka-230 ezinto nobuciko baseMesophothamiya alahleka olwandle.
Khona-ke ukumba kwaqala ukwenziwa eningizimu yesifunda ukuze kutholakale ubuciko obuningi baseMesopotamiya, ngalokhu bathola amanxiwa emizi yase-Uruk, iShushani, i-Uri neLarsa. Lapho kufika unyaka ka-1875, kwatholakala ubufakazi bempucuko yaseSumeri, kanye nezincwadi ezimbalwa zobuciko baseMesopotamiya.
Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-XNUMX, kwatholakala inani elikhulu lezinsalela zezithombe ezihlukahlukene ezivela edolobheni laseGudea eliyingxenye yobuciko baseMesopotamiya. Ngalesi sikhathi, abaseMelika baqala ukuba nesithakazelo sokumba kanye namaJalimane ukuze bathole ingcebo nobuciko baseMesopotamiya ukuze bathengise kubaqoqi abahlukahlukene ababenesithakazelo kwezobuciko baseMesopotamiya.
Isiko esifundeni saseMesopotamiya
Kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya, isiko layo kanye nobuciko bayo baseMesophothamiya kwakungenye yezingqalabutho emagatsheni amaningana olwazi, esinye sezici zokuqala kwaba ukuthuthukiswa kokubhala kwe-cuneiform, ngoba ngokomthetho kwakungokomfanekiso kakhulu okwasungulwa ngawo ubuciko baseMesopotamiya. . Emkhakheni wezomthetho, amakhodi okuqala okuziphatha adalwe.
Ngenkathi kubuchwepheshe bezokwakha kanye nokusha kuthuthukile futhi kwaba nenqubekela phambili enkulu njengokuklanywa kwezindlu ezingaphansi kanye nezindlu, nabo babenolwazi oluningi kangangokuthi benza ikhalenda elalinezinyanga eziyi-12 nezinsuku ezingama-360 ngonyaka. Emkhakheni wezibalo babenekhono elikhulu nokuqiniseka lapho besebenzisa izinombolo ezinezinhlangothi eziyisithupha.
Izici eziningi zobuciko baseMesophothamiya. Kanye namasiko akhona, kuningi okumele kutholwe futhi kuqhutshekwe nokufunda, lokhu kungenye yezimpucuko ezaba nethonya elikhulu emiphakathini eminingana eyayisondelene kakhulu futhi yingakho yaqala ukwakha nokuthuthukisa isiko laseNtshonalanga.
Isayensi Ethuthukisiwe Ku-Art yaseMesopotamian
Enye yesayensi eyayisetshenziswa kakhulu kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya kwakuwukusetshenziswa kwezibalo ngokusebenzisa izinombolo ze-hexadecimal kanye nesistimu yokubala izinombolo emakhulwini eminyaka kamuva. Isicelo sokuqala esanikezwa amasistimu okufaka izinombolo ahlukene kwakungezomnotho kanye nezohwebo.
Kusukela baqala ukusebenzisa imisebenzi yezibalo njengokuhlanganisa, ukususa, ukuphindaphinda nokuhlukanisa ukwenza izibalo zezibalo ezahlukene. Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yesi-II yeminyaka ngaphambi kokuzalwa kukaKristu, izibalo zakhe zathuthuka zaze zafinyelela ezingeni lokusebenzisa izibalo zafinyelela ezingeni lesithathu. Bayazi nenani eliseduze kakhulu nenombolo pi.
Kanye nokusetshenziswa kwamandla nezimpande ekusebenzeni kwezibalo. Ngokufanayo, esifundeni saseMesophothamiya basebenzisa i-calculus ukuze banqume amavolumu nezindawo ezisezibalo zejometri eziyinhloko.
Impucuko yabuye yasebenzisa isayensi yezinkanyezi ukuze ihlobanise nobuciko baseMesopotamiya, njengoba amaSumer enza izifundo futhi anquma ukuthi amanye amaplanethi nezinto ezihambayo zikhona. Ngaphezu kwezinkanyezi eziningi. Kodwa impucuko eyayigxile kakhulu ekuthuthukiseni isayensi yezinkanyezi kwakungabantu baseBabiloni ababenekhono nolwazi lokubikezela izenzakalo kusengaphambili.
Ngalolu lwazi abaseBabiloni bamukela ikhalenda elinembile kakhulu lenyanga lapho babehlanganisa khona nenyanga eyengeziwe ukuze balungise ikhalenda lelanga. Phakathi kophenyo olwahlukene olwalukhona, izinkulumo eziningana ngemithi kanye nezinhlu eziningi ze-geology zatholakala lapho kwakukhona izigaba eziningana zezinto ezihlukahlukene ababezazi.
Izincwadi Ezihlobene Nobuciko BaseMesopotamiya
Ngaphambi kokuthi kube nokuthuthukiswa okuqinile kwezincwadi ngolimi olubhalwayo olwalusetshenziswa kakhulu ukuze ukwazi ukubhala phansi ukuthengiselana okuhlukene okwakwenziwa endaweni yokuphatha ukuphatha inhlangano endaweni. Kodwa ngokuhamba kwesikhathi base befaka esinye isicelo sezincwadi nasekubhaleni njengoba sasihlobene nobuciko baseMesophothamiya.
Ukubhala kwakusetshenziselwa ukubhala phansi nokuchaza izenzakalo ezihlukahlukene, izinhlekelele, izinganekwane, izinganekwane ezazenzeka empucukweni yaseMesophothamiya futhi zonke lezi zimo ezishintshashintshayo zazihlobene namasiko nobuciko baseMesophothamiya. Ngakho-ke, kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi izincwadi zamaSumeri zafinyelela ezihlokweni ezintathu eziyinhloko njengobuciko baseMesopotamiya, njengezililo, izinganekwane, namahubo.
Okukhona kuzo amahubo ahlanganiswe nezindaba ezihlukene ezikhuluma ngezici ezahlukene zonkulunkulu baseMesophothamiya, okugqame phakathi kwazo u-Enlil onguyise uNkulunkulu nokhokho wabanye onkulunkulu abancane; Unkulunkulukazi u-Inanna owayaziwa ngokuthi unkulunkulukazi wothando nobungane. Kodwa ngokumthukuthelisa wayengunkulunkulukazi wempi.
Okuphinde kwavezwa unkulunkulu wamanzi ahlanzekile owaziwa ngokuthi u-Enki owayehlale engezwani nonkulunkulukazi wezintaba u-Ninhursag. Wonke lawa maculo ayeyingxenye yobuciko namasiko aseMesophothamiya. Ngenkathi amahubo ayesetshenziselwa ukwenza izingoma zokudumisa nemikhosi konkulunkulu namakhosi emadolobheni ahlukene nasemathempelini aseMesophothamiya.
Incwadi yesiLilo yayisetshenziswa njengobuciko baseMesophothamiya ukuze ixoxe ngezingozi nezinhlekelele ezazenzeka kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya futhi iqophe konke okwenzeka.
Eziningi zalezi zindaba zisekelwe ezehlakalweni ezenzekile njengezimpi noma izenzakalo zemvelo njengezikhukhula noma ngenxa yokwakhiwa okuhlaba umxhwele kwamathempeli noma izithombe eziqoshiwe zikaNkulunkulu noma inkosi ethile okwahlanekezelwa ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Yingakho izincwadi ziwubuciko baseMesophothamiya njengoba zazisekelwe ezinkondlweni ezahlukene.
Inkolo Eyeqhutshwa EMesophothamiya
Kumelwe kuphawulwe ukuthi kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya inkolo eyayikhonzwa yayingonkulunkulu abaningi, njengoba edolobheni ngalinye kwakukhulekelwa uNkulunkulu wawo oyinhloko neqoqo lonkulunkulu abancane, nakuba kwakukhona onkulunkulu abavamile ababekhulekelwa abantu abaningi ngenxa yezici zabo. . Onkulunkulu abakhulu ababekhonzwa esifundeni saseMesophothamiya kwakuyilaba:
- Anu: unkulunkulu wezulu nobaba wawonkulunkulu.
- Enki: unkulunkulu woMhlaba
- Nannar: UNkulunkulu weNyanga
- Utu: UNkulunkulu Welanga (cishe 5000 BC wayebizwa ngokuthi Ninurta).
- Inanna: unkulunkulukazi uVenus
- Ea: mdali wamadoda
- Enlil: unkulunkulu womoya.
Lokhu kube ithonya elikhulu nokusekela isiko nobuciko baseMesophothamiya, okufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi ngekhulu le-XNUMX BC, iNkosi uHammurabi yanquma ukuhlanganisa sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya sibe yisifunda esisodwa. Kusukela lapho asungula umuzi waseBhabhiloni njengenhloko-dolobha nesikhungo somnotho waseMesophothamiya, isiko nobuciko. Labeka uNkulunkulu uMarduk njengonkulunkulu oyinhloko wokukhulekela nokukhulekela kuso sonke isifunda saseMesophothamiya.
Lo nkulunkulu wayenomthwalo wemfanelo omkhulu empucukweni yaseMesophothamiya njengoba wayephethe ukuvuselela ukuhleleka okukhulu kwezulu okwakusho ukwenza izwe liphume olwandle futhi liqophe imizimba yabantu efana neyonkulunkulu futhi ikwazi ukusabalalisa izizinda zolwandle. umkhathi phakathi kwabo bonke.
Iphuzu elibalulekile okufanele liqokonyiswe kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya obusekelwe enkolweni ukuthi onkulunkulu babehlobene nemisebenzi ehlukene ababeyenza empucukweni njengemfuyo, izingubo zokugqoka, ukubhala, phakathi kweminye imisebenzi eminingi. Lokhu kwanikeza inkolo ibe banzi kakhulu kuso sonke isifunda saseMesopotamiya futhi kubantu abaningi bangaleso sikhathi futhi namuhla kuyathakazelisa kakhulu futhi kuyinto efundwayo njengenkolo, isiko kanye nobuciko baseMesopotamiya.
Esifundeni saseMesophothamiya, okugqamisa ukuthi yayiphakathi kwemifula emibili, izwe layo lalivunde kakhulu, yingakho impucuko eyenzeka kuleyo ndawo yaba abantu abayimizulane abafika lapho ukuze babe abalimi nabafuyi, bethuthukisa isiko labo kanye nobuciko babo. .I-Mesophothamiya emangaze abantu abaningi kuwo wonke umlando ngezitayela zayo ezihlukene nezindlela ababezisebenzisa.
Kukho konke lokhu, kungaqokonyiswa ukuthi ubuciko baseMesopotamiya bunobunye obanele ngokwenhloso yayo yakho konke okushiwo futhi kubangele isitayela sobuciko esiqinile, sejometri nesivaliwe kakhulu. Njengoba ubuciko baseMesophothamiya buzogqama ekusebenzeni nasekusetshenzisweni kwabo hhayi ngobuhle babo njengoba bebulokhu buthuthukisa ukufeza isevisi nomphakathi waseMesopotamiya.
Umfanekiso Owenziwa eMesopotamiya
Emdwebeni waseMesophothamiya, enye yezindlela zobuciko eziwusizo kakhulu kwakuwukubaza, njengoba izingcweti eziningi zazimelela onkulunkulu, amakhosi nezikhulu ezihlukahlukene zikahulumeni, kodwa njalo zigcizelela abantu ababodwa abacishe babeke igama lalowo muntu kubo. .
Esinye sezici ezivelele kakhulu zemifanekiso eqoshiwe njengobuciko baseMesophothamiya ukuthi lo mfanekiso wawufunwa esikhundleni somuntu esikhundleni sokuwumelela, njengoba wawunezici ezihlukile kumuntu, njengobuso nekhanda, futhi wawungalingani nomuntu. .isimo esivamile somuntu.
Ngaleso sikhathi, lokho okwakwaziwa ngokuthi i-conceptual realism kwathuthukiswa kubuciko baseMesopotamiya, obuhlanganisa ukwenza lula kanye nokuhlelwa kwezinhlobo zomzimba womuntu ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kwenqubo eyayibizwa ngokuthi umthetho we-frontality, owawusekelwe ekwenzeni isithombe esiqoshiwe. ukuthi izinhlangothi zesobunxele nesokudla zazinokulinganisa,
Izithombe eziningi zakhiwe ngohlobo lwesilinda sejometri efana kakhulu ne-cone. Yingakho izethulo ezehlukene ezenziwayo zingazungezanga iqiniso elalikhona. Okwathi kuzo izingcweti eziningi zaqala ukwenza izithombe eziqoshiwe zezilwane ezazizikhulekela ngamaqiniso amakhulu kunezithombe zabantu.
Izindikimba eziningi ezaziphathwa ngobuciko baseMesophothamiya bokuqopha kwakuwukwenziwa kwezinkunzi zesikhumbuzo ezazingokoqobo kakhulu njengoba zazizinzile.Lezi zinkunzi zazimelela izilo ezinhle kakhulu kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya, kodwa futhi zazihlonishwa njengezihlakaniphi nabavikeli bomphakathi. babenamandla angaphezu kwawemvelo.
Izindlela eziyinhloko ezisetshenziswa ebucikweni baseMesophothamiya zazisekelwe ekusetshenzisweni kosizo lwesikhumbuzo, i-parietal relief, i-stelae, izimpawu, kanye nokukhulula izitini ezicwebezelayo. Baphinde basungula izindlela ezintsha zokuqopha amatshe nokuthuthukisa izindaba ezindongeni zethempeli ezisekelwe emidwebeni ehlukene eyingxenye yobuciko baseMesophothamiya.
Imifanekiso eqoshiwe yobuciko baseMesophothamiya yenziwa ngesilinganiso ukuze ibe ngokoqobo kubantu, kodwa abadwebi ababulalayo bomsebenzi wobuciko waseMesophothamiya bawunikeza umfanekiso othile owawenza wagqama noma incazelo engaphezu kwalokho okwakungabonwa abantu bempucuko efanayo. . Kungakho izithombe eziqoshiwe zobuciko baseMesopotamiya kwakuyizigaba lapho impucuko eyanyamalala yesifunda saseMesopotamiya igqama kakhulu.
Imodeli okwaklanywa ngayo imifanekiso eqoshiwe ehlukahlukene yobuciko baseMesophothamiya yayiwukuthi izandla zazihlale ziwela esifubeni, ikhanda lomuntu laliphuciwe emfanekisweni oqoshiwe kanye nomzimba noma ingemuva lesithombe kwambulwa noma kwafakwa uhlobo oluthile lwemaski. phezu kwayo Isihloko sasisekelwe kubantu ababephawuleka empucukweni yaseMesophothamiya. Kanye namandla okholo kanye nezinkulumo ababenazo.
Nakuba ezinye izici eziqoshiwe zobuciko baseMesopotamiya kwakuwukusetshenziswa kwe-bas-relief eyayisetshenziselwa ukulandisa izindaba zezimpi zempi kanye nezenzakalo ezishaqisayo okwakudingeka zilandwe ukuze umphakathi wesikhathi esizayo wazi izenzakalo.
Kanye nemifanekiso yenkolo eyayenziwa konkulunkulu abahlukahlukene ababekhulekelwa emphakathini kwakuyizici eziyinhloko zobuciko baseMesophothamiya.
Ukudweba eMesopotamiya
Ukudweba kwezobuciko baseMesopotamiya akuzange kuvelele kakhulu ngenxa yezici zesifunda saseMesopotamiya, yingakho kunemisebenzi yobuciko embalwa kakhulu, nokho ubuciko obenziwa eMesopotamiya bufana kakhulu nobuciko obabuqhutshwa ngesikhathi saseMagdalenian sangaphambi komlando. . . Njengoba inqubo eyayisetshenziswa esifundeni saseMesophothamiya yayifana ne-parietal relief. Kwakungekho mbono futhi imisebenzi yayinenjongo yokuhlobisa kuphela.
Emidwebeni ehlukahlukene kanye nemidwebo eyatholwa abavubukuli ophenyweni olwenziwa, uhlu lwezithombe lwaboniswa ngokuya ngobukhulu babantu ababependwe emsebenzini wobuciko waseMesopotamiya. Njengoba ababenezikhundla eziphezulu njengamakhosi kanye nezikhulu eziphezulu babependwe abakhulu kunabanye abantu.
Kodwa kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi kwezobuciko zaseMesopotamiya, umdwebo wawusetshenziselwa ukuhlobisa nokuhlobisa izakhiwo kodwa awunakho umbono futhi umpofu we-chromatically, kunemibala ebomvu, eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka nemhlophe kuphela. Ukusebenzisa indlela yokushisa eyaziswa kuma-mosaic okuhlobisa namathayili. Izindikimba ezivame kakhulu ezisetshenziswa kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya kwakuyizigcawu zemihlatshelo, amasiko nezimpi ezazingokoqobo kakhulu.
Eminye imidwebo etholakala emidwebeni yaseMesopotamiya yayiyimidwebo yezilwane, izibalo zejometri, izilo kanye nabantu abanekhanda lezilwane ezisetshenziselwa ukuhlobisa ezindlini ezahlukene namathempeli futhi zingenalo ithunzi.
I-Architecture esifundeni saseMesopotamiya
Kumele kuqashelwe ukuthi ukwakhiwa kweMesophothamiya kwakukhethekile kakhulu njengobuciko baseMesophothamiya ngenxa yazo zonke izinsiza nezinto ezisetshenziswayo, ukuthi ukwakhiwa okuningana kwakusekelwe ezinhlelweni ezimbili eziyisisekelo okwakuyi-lintel kanye ne-vault.
Ukwakhiwa kweMesophothamiya kwakusekelwe ekwakhiweni kwama-mosaics anemibala egqamile kakhulu, phakathi kwawo okugqamile okuluhlaza, okumnyama kanye ne-bicolor, okwaklanywa yizingcweti ezifanayo eziklama imidwebo edwetshiwe yokudala, ukukhanya kwatholakala ngophahla ngoba amathempeli amaningi ayengenawo. amafasitela.
Kodwa empucukweni yaseMesophothamiya babekhathazeke kakhulu ngalokho okwenzeka emhlabeni futhi abazange banake kakhulu izwe labafileyo, ngakho-ke izakhiwo ezazinokumelela okukhulu kwakuyizigodlo namathempeli.
Yingakho emathempelini babenikezelwe ezintweni eziningi njengepolitiki, ezenkolo nezomnotho. Ngaphezu kwalokho, la mathempeli ayenezindawo ezinkulu zokulima futhi kwakunemihlambi yezimvu nezinkomo. Kwamanye amathempeli kwakunamadiphozithi kanye nezindawo zokugcina izilimo ezihlukene.
Vele bekukhona nezindawo zokucobelelana ngolwazi lapho kwakwenziwa khona izitsha, imifanekiso yethusi neyethusi. Kanye nemifanekiso ye-ceramic eyayimelela inani elikhulu lamasiko kubuciko baseMesopotamiya.
Abefundisi bamathempeli ahlukene yibona ababehlela ukuhwebelana komuzi kwazise baqasha abalimi, abenzi bezandla nabelusi ukuze badayise impahla eyayisemathempelini futhi laba bantu babekhokhelwa ngeziqephu ezincane zokulinywa kwamabele , izinsuku noma uvolo.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, abantu abaziwa ngokuthi ama-ziggurat babenezindlu ezinamakamelo amakhulu okuhlalisa abantu abavela emadolobheni aseduze bezoshintshana ngemikhiqizo ngaleyo ndlela bakhuthaze umnotho wasemadolobheni. Kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwedolobha kwaqala ukulawulwa emadolobheni amaningana, elinye eliyinhloko idolobha laseBabiloni nomuzi kaNebukadinesari II.
Ngenkathi imisebenzi yobunjiniyela iqokomisa inethiwekhi yemisele eyenziwa ukuze ihlangane namanzi oMfula iTigris noMfula i-Ewufrathe. Ngalokhu bathuthukisa ezolimo, ukunisela kanye nokuhamba ngemikhumbi. Izici eziyinhloko esingazithola ezikhumbuzo yilezi:
Isigodlo: njengoba kwezobuciko baseMesophothamiya kwakungekho uhlobo oluqondile lwezigodlo, kodwa kunalokho zaziwuchungechunge lwezakhiwo ezinobukhulu obuhlukene futhi zihlanganiswe amaphasishi amaningana, amaphasishi namagalari ayexhunywe ngamapulangwe amakhulu futhi anezindonga ezizungezile ukuze avikeleke. .
Eziningi zalezi zigodlo zaziklanywe ngendlela eyakhiwe ngama-quadrangular eyayinompheme olula owawuthola ukukhanya kwelanga nomoya omncane futhi wawuphakanyiswe ngamathafa amakhulu ngezitini ayengafinyelelwa ngamarampu amakhulu noma izitebhisi futhi enohlelo lokudonsa amanzi. izikhukhula ezahlukene ezabangelwa ukugcwala kwemifula.
Amasango ezigodlo ayeklanywe ngamashidi amancane ethusi ayezungezwe izithombe zezinkunzi ezinamaphiko ezinamakhanda abantu ezaziyingxenye ebaluleke kakhulu yobuciko baseMesophothamiya. Izindonga zalezi zigodlo zazihlotshiswe ngamafrescoes phezu kwesisekelo se-lime, ezibekwe ngezitini ezicwebezelayo. Okwenza ubuciko baseMesophothamiya bagqama ngendlela ewuketshezi kakhulu.
Izindonga: Amadolobha asesifundeni saseMesophothamiya ayevikelwe izindonga ezinkulu ukuze azivikele ekuhlaselweni. Ayephinde aklanywe ngama-engeli angakwesokudla ayeqiniswa ukusuka ekunwetshweni ukuya kwelula ngemibhoshongo eyisikwele. Iminyango yemizi kwakufanele yenziwe ngesango elikhulu elibiyelwe kakhulu futhi lilondeke kakhulu;
Ukuze kuvulwe amasango omuzi, ayeklanywe ngendlela yendlu engaphansi enenganono enkulu phakathi futhi ezinhlangothini kwakubekwe izithombe ezinkulu zezinkunzi ezinamaphiko ezinamakhanda abantu ezaziyingxenye ebaluleke kakhulu yesiko laseMesophothamiya futhi. ubuciko.
Amathuna: Ngokombono wobuciko nezakhiwo zaseMesophothamiya, amathuna ayengenaso isithakazelo esikhulu kubantu baseMesophothamiya njengoba ayeklanywe njengendawo yokubeka izitini elula eyayinamakamelo amaningana, eyayinetshe lesikhumbuzo elincane ngaphandle kwekamelo ngalinye. umnikelo othile kwabangasekho ababelapho.
Ngenkathi ingaphakathi emathuneni, izinto zobuciko ezihlukahlukene zatholakala njengamagajethi abaluleke kakhulu emasikweni nasebuciko baseMesopotamiya. Njengoba kwakukhona ifenisha kanye nezidumbu zezintombi, abaculi, izinceku, abaqeqeshi nonogada ababulawa ngamaqembu okuveza ukuthi babenemikhuba yomngcwabo eyivelakancane kula madolobha asesifundeni saseMesopotamiya.
Uma uthole le ndatshana yobuciko baseMesopotamiya ibalulekile, ngikumema ukuthi uvakashele izixhumanisi ezilandelayo: