Kweli nqaku sikuzisa ulwazi olufanelekileyo malunga ne ubugcisa be-mesopotamian. Kwakhona, yintoni imvelaphi yempucuko yaseSumeriya kwaye yayiyiphucula njani inkcubeko yayo ngokufunda kunye nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya?Qhubeka ufunda kwaye ufumane ngakumbi!
Ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya
Ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya bubhekisa kummandla okanye indawo ekuMbindi Mpuma kwaye iphakathi kwemilambo iTigris neEfrati, yiyo loo nto igama elithi Mesopotamiya liguqulelwe kwisiSpanish lithetha ukuthi "Umhlaba ophakathi kwemilambo emibini" lo mmandla uya kwandiswa kulo lonke ilizwe. Indawo yayo yomibini le milambo, inemihlaba echume kakhulu, kwaye iya kuhambelana neendawo ezingeyiyo intlango ezifumaneka kwi-Iraq yanamhlanje. Nangona igama elithi Mesopotamiya lalisetyenziswa kumaxesha amandulo.
Yiyo loo nto kufanele kuqatshelwe ukuba ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya buya kuba lulwahlulo lwejografi kunye nokulandelelana kwesixeko ngexesha lamandulo, kuba iinkcubeko ezininzi zibhekisa kumazwi obugcisa eMesopotamiya. Ukususela kwixesha Neolithic ukuba ibekwe kwinkulungwane yesithandathu BC de kwabakho ukuwa kweBhabhiloni nxamnye namaPersi ngonyaka 539 BC.
Ebudeni beli xesha, kwavela impucuko eyahlukahlukeneyo, enjengamaSumer, amaAkkad, amaBhabhiloni (okanye amaKhaledi), amaKassite, amaHurrian (amaMittani) nama-Asiriya (ama-Asiriya). Emva kwamawaka eminyaka adlulayo, kwakukho ummandla omkhulu weMesopotamiya eNgasezantsi kunye neMesopotamiya ePhezulu kuwo wonke lo mmandla. Kwada kwaqala ukuvela uBukhosi bamaPersi, obabunolungelelwano lwesithuba oluphezulu kakhulu kunoBukhosi buka-Aleksandire oMkhulu kunye nobuHellenism.
Imizobo yaseMesopotamiya yayineendlela ezahlukeneyo zokunxibelelana kwakude kudala ngaphambi kwexesha lamaPersi. Kwakhona yayinonxibelelwano kunye nexesha lamaRoma kunye nobugcisa bamaGrike, kwakukho iindlela ezininzi zokunxibelelana, phakathi kwazo idiplomacy, urhwebo kunye nemfazwe.
Kwakhona kwakukho unxibelelwano phakathi kobugcisa baseMesopotamiya kunye nempucuko eyahlukeneyo eyayihlala kwiMpuma Ekufuphi yaseMandulo, njengobugcisa bempucuko yamaHeti, ubugcisa bempucuko yaseFenike kunye nobugcisa bempucuko yamandulo yakwaSirayeli. Ezinye iimpucuko eziye zagqama ngelo xesha ngenxa yobugcisa bazo kwaye zazinonxibelelwano kunye nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya bubugcisa baseIndiya, ubugcisa baseYiputa, ubugcisa beLevant yeMeditera kunye nemimandla emininzi yommandla wase-Asia Ephakathi.
Kubugcisa baseMesopotamiya, kwakukho ukusasazwa okukhulu kwenkcubeko engapheliyo, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo ezahlukeneyo kunye nobuchule bobugcisa bokuphuhliswa kwemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo yobugcisa, nto leyo eyaba negalelo kwinkqubela phambili yenzululwazi, egxininisa ii-oveni zombumbi ezazingaphezulu. esebenza kakuhle kwaye emva koko yanikezela kuyilo lwezitofu ezikhazimlisiweyo zeceramic kunye neetoli zesinyithi.
Phakathi kwenkqubela phambili yentlalo nenkcubeko yoluntu lwaseMesopotamiya kukuzalwa koluntu oluzinikele ekubhaleni nasekukhonzeni, kwasekwa amaziko awayelawulwa ngurhulumente owayesalathisa eso sixeko. Iingcali ezininzi zobugcisa ziye zaqinisekisa ukuba impucuko enzima kakhulu.
Okwangoku, ubugcisa obuninzi baseMesopotamiya bugciniwe, kodwa ngumxholo oye wazisa impikiswano enkulu ngenxa yokuba abembi bezinto zakudala kunye neengcali zasempumalanga, ukususela ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-XNUMX, bathatha ezona ziqwenga zixabisekileyo zobugcisa baseMesopotamiya kwiimyuziyam ezahlukeneyo kwilizwekazi laseYurophu kwaye. eUnited States..
Yiyo loo nto ngoku kukho ingqokelela yobugcisa baseMesopotamiya kwiimyuziyam ezininzi zaseYurophu, kubandakanya iMyuziyam yaseBritane eLondon, iLouvre Museum eParis kunye neMyuziyam yasePergamon eBerlin.
Ngelixa okwangoku izinto ezifunyanisiweyo ezenziwe kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya ziye zayalela imisebenzi kwiMyuziyam yeSizwe yaseIraq, kodwa imfazwe ekhoyo kwelo lizwe ibangele ukuwohloka nokuphangwa kweziqwenga ezikhoyo ezinexabiso elingekho ngaphantsi kwe-10 lamawaka laseMelika. iidola.
Imbali yaseMesopotamiya
Kwimpucuko yommandla waseMesopotamiya kwiminyaka ye-6000 kunye ne-5000 a. C. imfuyo kunye nezolimo zanyanzeliswa, oko kwakungenwa kwixesha le-Neolithic apho izicwangciso ezintsha zemveliso ezaziyilwa kwindawo yokuqala ye-Neolithic zaphunyezwa.
Ezi zicwangciso zaphuhliswa kwaye zasasazwa kuwo wonke lo mmandla, apho iMesopotamia esezantsi igqamile, nto leyo eyabangela ukuba izixeko ezininzi ziphuhlise ngaphezu kwezinye, phakathi kwazo isixeko saseBuqras, Umm Dabaghiyah kunye neYarim zigqamile, emva koko izixeko zaseTell es-Sawwan. kunye neChoga Mami, enikezela inkcubeko entsha ebizwa ngokuba ngu-Umm Dabaghiyah.
Kamva le nkcubeko yatshintshwa yinkcubeko ye-Hassuna-Samarra, ephakathi kwe-5600 BC ukuya kwi-5000 BC kwaye phakathi kwe-5600 BC ukuya kwi-4000 BC, inkcubeko ye-Halaf yavela. Ngokuhamba kwexesha malunga nonyaka wama-3000 a. C kummandla waseMesopotamiya kwaqala ukusetyenziswa ukubhala. Kodwa eyona njongo yayo yayikukugcina iingxelo zolawulo zoluntu.
Imibhalo yokuqala eyafunyanwa ngabembi bezinto zakudala zenziwe ngodongwe, ukusetyenziswa kodongwe kwakuxhaphake kakhulu kwindawo yaseMesopotamiya, ukubhalwa kwakhiwe ngemizobo emininzi ngendlela yemigca eyaziwa ngokuba yi-pictograms.
Impucuko yasezidolophini kwingingqi yaseMesopotamiya iqhubekile ukwenza inkqubela phambili yetekhnoloji ngexesha le-Obeid ebekwe phakathi kwe-5000 BC kunye ne-3700 BC. Le nkqubela phambili yetekhnoloji igxile kuphuhliso olutsha kubugcisa be-ceramics yaseMesopotamiya kunye nokunkcenkceshela. Iitempile zokuqala zasezidolophini zokunqula oothixo nazo zaqala ukwakhiwa.
Emva kokuba ixesha le-Obeid liphelile, ixesha le-Uruk liyazalwa. Ngeli xesha, impucuko yasezidolophini yaseMesopotamiya yaqala ukuzinza kulo mmandla, yenza intuthuko enkulu yobugcisa njengevili nokubala. Apho izibalo zazibhalwe phantsi kumacwecwe odongwe ukugcina umyalelo. Le yayiza kuba yinkcazelo yokuqala eyayiza kubhalwa eMesopotamiya.
AmaSumeriya
Ngomnyaka we-3000 BC, impucuko yamaSumer yaqala ukuphuhlisa izixeko ezininzi kumazantsi eMesopotamiya, apho i-Eridu, i-Ur, i-Ea, i-Uma, i-Kish, i-Lagash kunye ne-Uruk yayigqamile, ezaziwa ngokuba yi-city-states. .
Uqoqosho oluphambili kunye nomthombo wokutya kwezi zixeko wawusekelwe kunkcenkceshelo. Ezi zixeko zazilawulwa ngukumkani opheleleyo owayeza kuba nesikhundla esaziwa ngokuba ngumfundisi. Kungenxa yokuba wayenamandla okunxibelelana noothixo nokukhusela izixeko kwiingozi ezahlukahlukeneyo zemvelo.
Kwimbali yamaSumer, kuyacaca ukuba yayiyimpucuko ekubhalweni koonobumba abatsobhileyo baza bakha iitempile ezinkulu zokunqulela oothixo babo, nto leyo eyayithetha inkqubela enkulu kubugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Ixesha leXesha leArchaic Dynasty
Ngoxa i-Uruk impucuko eyayihlala kummandla waseMesopotamiya yayifumana intuthuko enkulu kwinkcubeko yaseMesopotamiya kunye nobugcisa, yayizala inkcubeko yaseSumeriya. Ngenxa yokuba uninzi lweendlela zokunkcenkceshela ezazisetyenziswa eMesopotamiya, uqoqosho nobugcisa babusetyenziswa kwizixeko ezahlukahlukeneyo nakwimimandla emitsha eyayimiwe kweminye imimandla yaseMesopotamiya.
Uninzi lwezixeko ezitsha ziza kugqama ngenxa yokuba zakha iindonga. Kodwa uhlolisiso olwenziwa ngabembi bezinto zakudala luchaze ukuba lwaphakanyiswa ziimfazwe ezahlukahlukeneyo ezazikho ngelo xesha. Ikwabalaselisa ukubhala njengobugcisa baseMesopotamiya, ekubeni babusetyenziswa kummandla wolawulo, njengakubuchule bokubhala unikezelo kwimifanekiso eqingqiweyo abayinikela koothixo babo.
Kuyafuneka ukuba kugxininiswe ukuba zininzi izintlu zasebukhosini zaseSumeri. Kodwa le mbali ayibhalwanga kakuhle njengoko ingaziwa kakhulu kuba kwakukho izikumkani ezininzi ezinemihla engenakwenzeka kwaye ngenkulungwane ye-XNUMX BC ookumkani baqala ukwenza uluhlu lwasebukhosini kuba abo kumkani babefuna ukwazi ukuba umnombo wabo wawuyintoni ukususela kumaxesha e-epic.
Yiyo loo nto uninzi lookumkani bomnombo we-archaic lunokuba yinyaniso kodwa abanye abaninzi abanjalo, baqulunqwa ngabanye ookumkani kwaye akukho bungqina bembali bokuba babekho kwaye akukho zibalo ezibonakalayo zaba kumkani.
Ubukhosi baseAkkadian
Malunga naloo nyaka ka-3000 BC, impucuko yamaSemite yayisaziwa ngokuba ngoonothwal’ impahlana ababehlala kwi-peninsula yaseArabia, kwaye basasazeka emantla bafumana impucuko entsha efana nama-Amori, amaFenike, amaSirayeli kunye nama-Aram. Ngoxa babekummandla waseMesopotamiya abantu abangamaSemite, impucuko eyayinempembelelo enkulu yayingama-Akkad.
Ngonyaka ka-2350 BC, ukumkani owaziwa ngokuba nguSargon WokuQala waseAkkad, owayenomnombo wama-Akkad, wahlasela isixeko saseKishe waza wasithimba igunya lokusilawula. Into yokuqala awayenzayo yafunyanwa inkunzi entsha. Eyibiza ngokuba yiAgade kwaye oku kwabangela ukuba kuqaliswe amadabi amaninzi ukoyisa zonke izixeko zaseSumeri. Wamoyisa ukumkani wezi zixeko ezaziwa ngokuba yiLugalzagesi.
Konke oku kwakwaziwa njengobukhosi bokuqala kwimbali yehlabathi kwaye kwakuya kukhokelwa ngamalandela kaSargon ekwakufuneka ajamelane nemvukelo eqhubekayo eyayiqhutyelwa ukubhukuqa uBukhosi. Phakathi kookumkani ababalaseleyo ngumzukulwana wakhe kunye nomoyisi wakhe uNaram-Sin. Yayilixesha apho inkcubeko yamaSumeri yancipha kwaye inkcubeko yama-Akkadians yaphakama.
Kodwa ngomnyaka wama-2220 BC uBukhosi bawa ngenxa yeemvukelo ezininzi ekwakufuneka bajamelane nazo kunye nohlaselo lokufuduka kwama-Amori namaGutis, xa ubukhosi bawayo yonke loo ngingqi yayilawulwa zezi zizwe. Oko kwakhuthaza inkcubeko nobuchule bayo kwiidolophu ezahlukeneyo zaseMesopotamiya. Apho wagxininisa kakhulu kwidolophu enkulu iAgade ukuba yonke indawo eyingqongileyo yatshatyalaliswa.
Iingxelo zaseSumeri ezisukela ngelo xesha zichaza ezi ziganeko njengezibi kakhulu kuluntu njengeqela lamabhari kunye needragoni zasentabeni eza esixekweni ukuze zitshabalalise yonke into esendleleni yazo. Kodwa abanye abembi bezinto zakudala baye babonisa ukuba le nyaniso yayingeyonto imbi kangako, kuba kwizixeko ezininzi kwakukho ukuchuma okukhulu kwinkcubeko nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Umzekelo ocacileyo kakhulu wale nyaniso wenzeka kwisixeko esaziwa ngokuba yiLagash, ngexesha lolawulo lomlawuli uGudea, owagxininisa ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya, ephakamisa umgangatho wawo ekubeni imisebenzi eyenziwa kwesi sixeko iLagash yayinezinto eziphezulu kakhulu. ukusuka kwizixeko ezikude njengeLebhanon okanye i-diorite, igolide kunye ne-carnelian esuka kwi-Indus Valley.
Ngenxa yolu phawu, abembi bezinto zakudala bacinga ukuba urhwebo lwalungekho, ekubeni ukuhanjiswa kwesi sixhobo kwakuya kuba kubiza kakhulu. Yiyo loo nto abantu abaninzi ababehlala kwizixeko ezisemazantsi babefuna ukuthenga inkululeko yezalamane zabo ukuze bafumane izinto ezixabisekileyo ukuze kuphuhliswe uqoqosho nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya. Izixeko zase-Uruk ne-Uri ngexesha le-XNUMX kunye ne-XNUMXnd inkulungwane zaphumelela kakhulu kwaye ubukhosi babo bahlonishwa kakhulu.
IRenaissance yaseSumeri
Kwicwecwe elifunyenwe ngabaphandi kuthiwa ngu-Utu-hegal, owayengukumkani wesixeko saseUruk. Ngubani odweliswe kwiminyaka ye-2100 BC kuba wayekhokela umkhosi wakhe ukuba woyise abalawuli besixeko saseGutis kwintsimi yaseSumeri. Kodwa wayengazi ukuba angayisebenzisa njani eli thuba lempumelelo ukususela nje emva kokuba eshenxisiwe etroneni ngu-Ure-Nammu, owayengukumkani wesixeko saseUre.
Emva koko isixeko saba ngumzi we-hegemonic kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya ngexesha lobukhosi besithathu baseUre. Ubukhosi baseSumeri obavela ngobukhosi baqhubeka ixesha elide njengobukhosi bomnombo kaSargon.
Emva koko, ithiyori yoBukhosi obumanyeneyo yahluma kummandla waseMesopotamiya apho ookumkani baziqhelanisa nenkqubo yolawulo lwama-Akkadi ababezibiza ngokuba "ngookumkani baseSumer nase-Acad" kwisixeko sase-Ur-Nammu apho ubukumkani buya kuba khona. ubukhosi bonyana kaShulgi owayesilwa nobukumkani basempuma bakwaElam kunye nezizwe ezifudukayo zamaZagros.
Emva koko unyana wakhe u-Amar-Suen uthatha amandla, emva koko umzalwana ogama linguShu-Sin uthatha amandla. Ukugqiba nge-Ibbi-Sin. Njengokumkani wesithathu ngokulandelelana kwitrone yempucuko yamaSumerians. Kodwa kolu lawulo impucuko yama-Amori asuka e-Arabia abe namandla ngenxa yokuqhubela phambili kobugcisa kunye nenkcubeko yabo de kube ngo-2003 BC ubukhosi bokugqibela baseSumeri buwela kummandla waseMesopotamiya.
Iya kwandula ke inkcubeko eya kwesamela kummandla waseMesopotami ibe yimpucuko yaseBhabhiloni eyazuza ilifa iimpawu nezithethe ezininzi zamaSumer.
Umnombo wama-Amori
Xa ubukhosi besixeko saseUre buwa, ngeli xesha imbali yobumnyama ayizange iphinde iphindwe kubemi, ekubeni eli nqanaba laphawulwa ngokunyuka komnombo wama-Amori awayenenkcubeko enkulu kwaye ayekulungele ukuhlala kwindawo. imekobume engcono.
Ebudeni beminyaka engama-50 yokuqala yempucuko, ama-Amori ayehlala kwisixeko esaziwa ngokuba yi-Isin, esazama ukuzinyanzela kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya kodwa akwabikho mpumelelo. Ke ngonyaka we-1930 BC, abalawuli besixeko saseLarsa baqalisa ukuhlasela ezinye izixeko ezikuloo mmandla, behlasela isixeko sase-Elam neDiyala njengenjongo yabo ephambili, bephela ngesixeko saseUre.
Kodwa loo njongo ayizange iphunyezwe ngokupheleleyo ekubeni engazange afumane ummandla opheleleyo wommandla waseMesopotamiya. Kodwa yafumana ihegemony ecacileyo kuBukhosi bukaHammurabi Paleo-Babylonian, kodwa ubukhosi bayo bawela phakathi ko-1860 no-1803 BC. C ekubeni isixeko Uruk kunye nomkhosi wayo isigqibo umngeni amandla hegemonic ababenabo ubunkokeli basebenzise kulo mmandla.
Kwisixeko sase-Elam, inkcubeko yama-Akkadi yenza ubukumkani besi sixeko bomelele ngakumbi, obuye baziswa ngakumbi kwizopolitiko ezazisetyenziswa kummandla waseMesopotamiya.
Ngelixa kwindawo eyaziwayo esemantla eMesopotamiya kwavela izixeko ezomeleleyo ezathi zahlaziywa lurhwebo noqoqosho olwalusenziwa phakathi kwezixeko ezisemazantsi naleyo yaseAnatolia, apho ubukumkani baseAsiriya buya kugqama, apho buya kwanda kuwo wonke loo mmandla de bufikelele kwidolophu yaseAsiriya. IMeditera ikhokelwa ngukumkani waseShamshi-Adad I.
Ubukhosi bepaleobhabhiloni
Ngokutsho kohlolisiso olwenziwayo, uHammurabi wangena etroneni ngowe-1792, apho isixeko saseBhabhiloni sasingabalulekanga kangako kummandla waseMesopotamiya. Ngelo xesha uFaro uya kuqalisa umgaqo-nkqubo wokwandisa kuwo wonke ummandla. Kwelinye lamacebo akhe okuqala yayikukukhulula isixeko saseUre ngonyaka we-1786.
Emva kokujongana nomkhosi wakhe nokubhukuqa ukumkani waseLarsa, owaziwa ngokuba nguRim-Sin. Kwakhona wathatha ulawulo lwesixeko sase-Uruk ne-Isin. Ngoncedo lwemikhosi eyahlukahlukeneyo ethe yajoyina injongo yakhe. Ngowe-1762, umfelandawonye owawuphakathi kwezixeko ezazikunxweme loMlambo iTigris woyiswa.
Ukuze emva kweminyaka embalwa bagqibe ekubeni bahlasele baze boyise isixeko saseLarsa emva kolu buchule ukumkani wayenokuzivakalisa njengerhuluneli yesixeko saseSumer naseAcard. Esi sihloko sasisetyenziswe ngamaxesha apho iSargón de Acad yalathisa. Yaye yaqalisa ukusetyenziswa ngumlawuli ngamnye owaqalisa ukuhlala etroneni ngokoyisa okanye ngokulandelelana. Kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya.
Ngokuhamba kwexesha, umfanekiso wookumkani uye wanda, ukususela ekuloyisoni okwahlukeneyo kodwa kunye nokusetyenziswa komsebenzi wokwakha kunye nokugcinwa kweenkqubo ezahlukeneyo zokunkcenkceshela kunye nokucaciswa kwenkqubo yemithetho ekufuneka izalisekiswe njengequla- ikhowudi Hammurabi eyaziwayo.
Ngomnyaka we-1750 BC, ukumkani u-Hammurabi wafa, enika ubukhosi bakhe bonke kunyana wakhe uSamsu-Iluna, owajamelana namadabi amaninzi ngokuchasene nama-Kassites ahambahambayo. Le meko iphindaphindwa kaninzi de kwaba ngunyaka we-1708 BC, kulawulo luka-Abhi-Eshuh. Iingxaki ezininzi zoonothwal' impahlana zaziphindaphindekile.
Olu xinzelelo lwaluxhaphakile kuyo yonke inkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe BC, ubukhosi babunxibe de kube luhlaselo lokugqibela lwenkosi yamaHeti, uMursili I, yazinzisa ubukhosi obawela phantsi kwamandla amaKassite ahambahambayo.
Iimpawu zeMbali yeMesopotamian Art
Ukuphuhlisa isuntswana lembali yobugcisa baseMesopotamiya, kufuneka sifunde izifundo zokuqala kunye nophando olwaqhutywa ngonyaka we-1786 ngumfundisi owaziwayo kunye nomphathi jikelele uJoseph de Beauchamps, oye kwafuneka alinde iminyaka eliqela ukuze akwazi ukuthwala. ukugrunjwa kokuqala kokwenyani kummandla waseMesopotamiya.
Nangona oku kugrunjwa kwakukhuthazwa ngummeli waseFransi owaziwa ngokuba nguPaul Émile Botta, owayekwisixeko saseMotul. Bagxile ekuqhubeni ukugrumba kwisixeko sase-Tell Kuyunjik, kodwa abazange banike ziphumo zilungileyo kuba sasikufuphi nesixeko saseNineve kwaye ummi walapho wacebisa ukuba baqhube uphando kunye nokwemba kumntla wesixeko apho bafumana imisebenzi eMesopotamiya njengoko yayinjalo imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yamaSiriya.
Oku kwathabathel’ indawo eyona mizobo ibalulekileyo eyafunyanwa ekuqaleni kwelaseMesopotamiya eyayithiywe kuphela ngeBhayibhile. Ukususela ngelo xesha, uphando olwahlukeneyo kunye nokwemba lwaqala ukufumana ubungqina obuninzi bobugcisa kunye nenkcubeko yaseMesopotamiya.
Oku kwaphinda kwaqalisa usukuzwano phakathi kwamaFrentshi namaNgesi. Ekubeni isiNgesi, kuphando ababelwenzile, bakwazi ukufumana isiqalo sethala leencwadi laseAsurbanipal, ngelixa amaFrentshi akwazi ukufumana ibhotwe likaSargon II eKhorsabad.
Kodwa ezi zinto zafunyaniswayo zaba nesiphelo esilusizi njengoko imisebenzi emininzi yobugcisa baseMesopotamiya kunye nezinto ezininzi zenkcubeko zathatyathwa ngesikhephe phantsi koMlambo iTigris. Le nqanawa yazika kwaye iibhokisi ezingaphezu kwama-230 zezinto kunye zobugcisa zaseMesopotamiya zalahleka elwandle.
Kwandula ke ukugrumba kwaqaliswa ukuqhutyelwa emazantsi alo mmandla ukuze kufunyanwe ubugcisa obungakumbi baseMesopotamiya, yaye oku bafumana amabhodlo ezixeko zaseUruk, iSusa, iUre neLarsa. Xa kwafika unyaka we-1875, kwafunyanwa ubungqina bempucuko yaseSumeri, kunye nemisebenzi emininzi yobugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-XNUMX, kwafunyanwa inani elikhulu leentsalela zemifanekiso eqingqiweyo eyahlukahlukeneyo kwisixeko saseGudea sobugcisa baseMesopotamiya. Ngeli xesha, amaMerika aqala ukuba nomdla wokugrumba kunye namaJamani ukufumana ubuncwane kunye nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya ukuthengisa abaqokeleli abahlukeneyo abanomdla kubugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Inkcubeko kwiNgingqi yaseMesopotamiya
Kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya, inkcubeko yawo kunye nobugcisa bayo baseMesopotamiya yayingomnye woovulindlela kumasebe aliqela olwazi, enye yeempawu zokuqala yayikukuphuhla kokubhalwa koonobumba abatsobhileyo, kuba ngokomgaqo wawungumfanekiso obalaseleyo owawuphuhliswa ngawo ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya. . Kwintsimi yomthetho, iikhowudi zokuqala zokuziphatha zenziwa.
Ngelixa kubuchwephesha bokwakha kunye nokwenziwa kwezinto ezintsha kuhambele phambili kwaye kukho inkqubela phambili enkulu efana nokuyilwa kweevaults kunye needomes, nabo babenolwazi oluninzi kangangokuba benza ikhalenda eneenyanga ezili-12 kunye neentsuku ezingama-360 ngonyaka. Kwizifundo zemathematika babenobuchule obukhulu nokuqiniseka xa besebenzisa amanani anehexadecimal.
Uninzi lweempawu zobugcisa baseMesopotamiya. Kwakunye nenkcubeko yayo, kuninzi ekufuneka kufunyenwe kwaye kuqhubeke ukufunda, oku kuba yenye yeempucuko eziye zanempembelelo enkulu kwiimpucuko ezininzi ezazisondelelene kakhulu kwaye yiyo loo nto yaqala ukwakha nokuphuhlisa inkcubeko yaseNtshona.
IiSayensi eziPhuhliswe kubuGcisa baseMesopotamiya
Enye yezona nzululwazi zisetyenziswa kakhulu kubugcisa baseMesopotamiya yayikukusebenzisa imathematika kusetyenziswa inombolo yehexadecimal kunye nenkqubo yokubala amanani kwiinkulungwane kamva. Isicelo sokuqala esathi sanikezelwa kwiinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zokubala iinombolo kuqoqosho nakurhwebo.
Oko baqala ukusebenzisa imisebenzi yemathematika efana nokudibanisa, ukuthabatha, ukuphindaphinda kunye nokwahlulahlula ukwenza izibalo ezahlukeneyo zemathematika. Ekuqaleni kwe-II yenkulungwane ye-BC, imathematika yakhe yaqhubela phambili ukuya kwinqanaba lokusebenzisa ii-equations ukuya kutsho kwinqanaba lesithathu. Kwakhona babelazi ixabiso elikufutshane kakhulu kwinani elingu-pi.
Kwakunye nokusetyenziswa kwamandla kunye neengcambu kwimisebenzi yezibalo. Ngokufanayo, kummandla waseMesopotamiya basebenzisa i-calculus ukumisela imiqulu kunye nemigangatho kumanani amakhulu ejometri.
Impucuko iphinde yasebenzisa i-astronomy ukuyinxulumanisa nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya, kuba amaSumeri enza izifundo kwaye agqiba ukuba ezinye iiplanethi kunye nezinto ezihambayo zikhona. Ukongeza kwiinkwenkwezi ezininzi. Kodwa impucuko eyagxininisa kakhulu ekuphuhliseni inzululwazi ngeenkwenkwezi yayingamaBhabhiloni awayenamandla nolwazi lokuzibona kusengaphambili izinto ezenzekayo.
Ngolu lwazi, amaBhabhiloni amkela ikhalenda yenyanga ngokuthe ngqo apho afaka nenyanga eyongezelelweyo ukuyihlengahlengisa kwikhalenda yelanga. Phakathi kophando olwahlukeneyo olwalukho, iindlela ezininzi zokunyanga amayeza kunye noluhlu lwejoloji ezininzi zafunyanwa apho kwakukho iindidi ezininzi zezinto ezahlukeneyo ababezazi.
Uncwadi oluNxulumene nobuGcisa baseMesopotamiya
Ngaphambi kokuba kubekho uphuhliso olungqongqo loncwadi ngolwimi olubhaliweyo olwalusetyenziswa ngokubanzi ukubhala phantsi iintengiselwano ezahlukeneyo ezaziqhutywa kwindawo yolawulo ukuqhuba umbutho kwi-commune. Kodwa ekuhambeni kwexesha babefaka esinye isicelo kuncwadi nasekubhaleni ekubeni yayinxulumene nobuchule baseMesopotamiya.
Ukubhala kwakusetyenziselwa ukubhala nokucacisa iziganeko ezahlukeneyo, iintlekele, iintsomi, iintsomi ezazisenzeka kwimpucuko yaseMesopotamiya kwaye zonke ezi ziganeko zazinxulumene nenkcubeko nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya. Ngoko ke, kubalulekile ukuphawula ukuba uncwadi lwamaSumeri lwafikelela kwimixholo emithathu emikhulu njengobugcisa baseMesopotamiya, njengezililo, iintsomi namaculo.
Ekwathi kuwo la maculo ayebunjwe ngamabali ahlukeneyo abalisa ngeempawu ezahlukahlukeneyo zoothixo baseMesopotamiya, ekuthe phakathi kwabo kwagqama uEnlil ubawo uThixo nonozala wabanye oothixo abancinane; Uthixokazi u-Inanna owayesaziwa njengothixokazi wothando nobuhlobo. Kodwa ngokumcaphukisa waba nguthixokazi wemfazwe.
Kwakhona kubonakaliswe uthixo wamanzi acocekileyo owaziwa ngokuba nguEnki owayesoloko engavisisani nothixokazi weentaba uNinhursag. Onke la maculo ayeyinxalenye yobugcisa nenkcubeko yaseMesopotamiya. Ngelixa amaculo ayesetyenziselwa ukwenza iingoma zokudumisa nomsitho koothixo nookumkani kwizixeko neetempile ezahlukeneyo zaseMesopotamiya.
Izililo zazisetyenziswa njengobugcisa baseMesopotamiya ukubalisa iingozi neentlekele ezazisenzeka kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya nokurekhoda yonke into eyenzekayo.
Uninzi lwala mabali lusekelwe kwiziganeko ezenzeke njengeemfazwe okanye iziganeko zendalo ezifana nezikhukula okanye ngenxa yokwakhiwa okuchukumisayo kweetempile okanye imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yoThixo othile okanye ukumkani othile oye wagqwethwa ekuhambeni kwexesha. Yiyo loo nto uncwadi lulubugcisa baseMesopotamiya kuba lwalusekwe kwimibongo eyahlukeneyo.
Unqulo OlwaseMesopotamiya
Kufanele kuphawulwe ukuba kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya unqulo olwaluqheliselwa lwalunqula oothixo abaninzi, ekubeni kwisixeko ngasinye kwakunqulwa uThixo walo oyintloko neqela loothixo abancinane, nangona kwakukho oothixo abaqhelekileyo ababenqulwa ngabemi ngenxa yeempawu zabo. . Oothixo abakhulu ababenqulwa kummandla waseMesopotamiya ngaba:
- Anu: thixo wezulu noyise wothixo.
- Enki: uthixo woMhlaba
- Nannar: Thixo weNyanga
- Utu: UThixo weLanga (malunga ne-5000 BC wayebizwa ngokuba nguNinurta).
- Inanna: uthixokazi uVenus
- Ea: mdali wamadoda
- Enlil: thixo womoya.
Oku kube yimpembelelo enkulu kunye nenkxaso yenkcubeko kunye nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya, apho kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba ngenkulungwane ye-XNUMX BC, uKumkani uHammurabi wagqiba ekubeni amanyanise wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya ube ngumbuso omnye. Ukusuka apho waseka isixeko saseBhabheli njengekomkhulu kunye neziko loqoqosho lwaseMesopotamiya, inkcubeko kunye nobugcisa. Yabeka uThixo uMarduk njengoyena thixo wonqulo nowonqulo kuwo wonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya.
Lo thixo wathwala uxanduva olukhulu kwimpucuko yaseMesopotamiya ekubeni wayephethe ukumisela kwakhona ulungelelwaniso olukhulu lwasezulwini olwaluthetha ukwenza umhlaba uphume elwandle nokukrola imizimba yabantu efana neyoothixo nokukwazi ukusasaza imimandla indalo phakathi kwabo bonke.
Inqaku elibalulekileyo lokugqamisa kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya esekelwe kunqulo yayikukuba oothixo babenxulumene nemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo ababeyenza kwimpucuko efana nemfuyo, impahla, ukubhala, phakathi kwezinye izinto ezininzi. Oku kwanika inkolo ebanzi kakhulu kulo lonke ummandla waseMesopotamiya kwaye kubantu abaninzi belo xesha kwaye namhlanje inomdla kakhulu kwaye yinto yokufunda njengenkolo, inkcubeko kunye nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Kwingingqi yaseMesopotamiya, ibalaselisa ukuba ibekwe phakathi kwemilambo emibini, umhlaba wayo wawuchume kakhulu, kungoko impucuko eyenzeka kuloo mmandla yaba ngabantu abahambahambayo ababeze apho ukuze babe ngabalimi nabafuyi, bephuhlisa inkcubeko yabo kunye nobugcisa babo. IMesopotamiya iye yamangalisa abantu abaninzi kwimbali ngenxa yeendlela ezahlukeneyo kunye neendlela abazisebenzisayo.
Kuko konke oku, kunokugxininiswa ukuba ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya bunobunye obaneleyo ngokwenjongo yayo yonke into eyithethayo kwaye ibangele ubugcisa obuqinileyo, bejometri kunye nokuvalwa kakhulu. Ekubeni ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya buya kugqama ngokusebenza kunye nokusetyenziswa kwayo kwaye kungekhona kwi-aesthetics yayo kuba ibisoloko iphuhlisa ukuzalisekisa inkonzo kunye noluntu lwaseMesopotamiya.
Umfanekiso Oqingqiweyo Owenziwa eMesopotamiya
Kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya, enye yezona ndlela zobugcisa zobugcisa zaziyimifanekiso eqingqiweyo, ekubeni amagcisa amaninzi enza imifanekiso yoothixo, ookumkani kunye namagosa aseburhulumenteni ahlukeneyo, kodwa ehlala egxininisa abantu ababodwa abasoloko bebeka igama lomntu kubo, lowo wenza lo mfanekiso .
Olunye uphawu olubalaseleyo lomfanekiso oqingqiweyo njengobugcisa baseMesopotamiya kukuba lo mfanekiso wawufunwa endaweni yomntu kunokuba ummele, ekubeni wawuneempawu ezibalaseleyo emntwini, ezinjengobuso nentloko, ezazingalingani nomntu. .umzobo oqhelekileyo womntu.
Ngelo xesha, oko kwaziwa ngokuba yingqiqo yokwenene yaphuhliswa kubugcisa baseMesopotamiya, obubandakanya ukwenza lula kunye nokulungelelanisa iifom zomzimba womntu ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kobuchule obubizwa ngokuba ngumthetho wobuphambili, obusekwe ekwenzeni umfanekiso oqingqiweyo. ukuba amacala asekhohlo nasekunene ayelingana,
Uninzi lwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yaphuhliswa ngohlobo lwe-cylinder yejometri efana kakhulu ne-cone. Yiyo loo nto imiboniso eyahlukeneyo eyenziwayo ingazange ijikeleze ubunyani obukhoyo. Ekwathi kuyo amagcisa amaninzi aqalisa ukwenza imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yezilwanyana ababeyinqula ngokwenyani ngaphezu kwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yabantu.
Imixholo emininzi eyayiphathwa kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya yokwenziwa kwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yayikukwenziwa kweenkunzi zeenkomo zesikhumbuzo ezazinenyani kakhulu ekubeni zazizinzile. babenamandla angaphezu kwawemvelo.
Obona buchule busetyenziswayo kubuchwephesha baseMesopotamiya babusekwe ekusetyenzisweni kwesikhumbuzo sesikhumbuzo, isiqabu se-parietal, i-stelae, itywina, kunye nokunyibilika kwezitena ezikhazimlisiweyo. Baye bavelisa iindlela ezintsha zokukrola ilitye kunye nokuphuhlisa amabali kwiindonga zetempile ngokusekelwe kwimizobo eyahlukeneyo eyinxalenye yobugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya yenziwa ngokomlinganiselo wokwenene wabantu, kodwa amagcisa aphumeza umsebenzi wobugcisa baseMesopotamiya bawunika umfuziselo owawenza wagqama okanye intsingiselo engaphaya koko abantu bempucuko efanayo banokuyibona. . Kungenxa yoko le nto imizobo yobugcisa baseMesopotamiya yayiziindidi apho impucuko eyanyamalalayo yommandla waseMesopotamiya ibalasele kakhulu.
Imodeli eyenziwe ngayo imizobo eyahlukeneyo kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya yayikukuba izandla zazihlala ziwela phezu kwesifuba, intloko yomntu yachetywa emfanekisweni oqingqiweyo kwaye i-torso okanye umva womfanekiso wawutyhiliwe okanye uhlobo oluthile lwemaski lubekwe. phezu kwayo Lo mxholo wawusekelwe kubantu ababephawuleka kwimpucuko yaseMesopotamiya. Kwakunye namandla okholo kunye nentetho ababenayo.
Ngelixa ezinye iimpawu zemifanekiso eqingqiweyo kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya yayikukusetyenziswa kwe-bas-relief eyayisetyenziselwa ukubalisa amabali eemfazwe zomkhosi kunye neziganeko ezothusayo ezimele zibaliswe ukuze uluntu oluzayo luzazi iziganeko.
Kwanemizobo yonqulo eyayisenziwa koothixo abahlukahlukeneyo ababenqulwa ekuhlaleni yayizezona mpawu ziphambili zobugcisa baseMesopotamiya.
Ukupeyinta eMesopotamiya
Ukupeyinta kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya akuzange kubonakale kakhulu ngenxa yeempawu zengingqi yaseMesopotamiya, yiyo loo nto kukho imisebenzi embalwa kakhulu yobugcisa, nangona kunjalo ubugcisa olwenziwa eMesopotamiya bufana kakhulu nobugcisa obabusenziwa kwixesha laseMagdalenia lexesha langaphambili. . . Ekubeni ubuchule obabusetyenziswa kwingingqi yaseMesopotamiya yayifana ne-parietal relief. Kwakungekho mbono kwaye imisebenzi yayinenjongo yokuhombisa kuphela.
Kwimizobo eyahlukeneyo kunye nemizobo efunyenwe ngabavubukuli kuphando olwenziweyo, i-hierarchy yemifanekiso yokudweba iboniswe ngokuhambelana nobukhulu babantu ababepeyintiwe kumsebenzi wobugcisa waseMesopotamiya. Ekubeni abo babenezikhundla eziphezulu ezifana nookumkani namagosa aphakamileyo babepeyintwa amakhulu kunabanye abantu.
Kodwa kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya, ukupeyinta kwakusetyenziselwa ukuhombisa kunye nokuhombisa i-architecture kodwa ayinayo imbono kwaye ihlwempuzekile ngokwechromatically, kukho imibala ebomvu, eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka kunye nemhlophe kuphela. Ukusebenzisa ubuchule bokuthambisa obuxatyisiweyo kwiimosaic zokuhombisa kunye neethayile. Imixholo esetyenziswa rhoqo kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya yayiyimiboniso yamadini, amasiko kunye neemfazwe ezaziyinyani.
Eminye imizobo efunyenwe kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya yayimizobo yezilwanyana, imizobo yejometri, izilo kunye nabantu abaneentloko zezilwanyana ezazisetyenziselwa ukuhlobisa izindlu ezahlukeneyo kunye neetempile kwaye zazingenazo izithunzi.
Uyilo lwezakhiwo kwiNgingqi yaseMesopotamiya
Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba i-architecture eMesopotamiya yayikhethekileyo kakhulu njengobugcisa baseMesopotamiya ngenxa yazo zonke izibonelelo kunye nezinto ezisetyenzisiweyo, ukuba ezininzi zokwakha zazisekelwe kwiinkqubo ezimbini ezisisiseko ezaziyi-lintel kunye ne-vault.
Uyilo lweMesopotamiya lwalusekwe kwisakhiwo se-mosaics enemibala eqaqambileyo, phakathi kwayo eluhlaza, emnyama kunye ne-bicolor egqamile, eyilwe ngamagcisa afanayo ayila imizobo yobugcisa, ukukhanya kwafunyanwa ngesilingi kuba iitempile ezininzi babengenazo. iifestile.
Kodwa kwimpucuko yaseMesopotamiya babeyixhalabele kakhulu into eyenzekayo kubomi basemhlabeni kwaye abazange banikele ngqalelo kakhulu kwihlabathi labafileyo, ngoko ke izakhiwo ezazinomfanekiso omkhulu yayizibhotwe kunye neetempile.
Yiyo loo nto ezitempileni zazinikelwe kwizinto ezininzi ezinje ngezopolitiko, ezenkolo nezoqoqosho. Ukongezelela, ezi tempile zazinemihlaba emikhulu yokulima yaye kwakukho imihlambi yeegusha neenkomo. Kwezinye iitempile kwakukho iidiphozithi kunye neendawo zokugcina izityalo ezahlukeneyo.
Ewe bekukho neeworkshops apho izitya, imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yobhedu neyobhedu. Kanye kunye nemifanekiso ye-ceramic emele ixabiso lenkcubeko eninzi kwi-Mesopotamiya yobugcisa.
Ababingeleli beetempile ezahlukeneyo yayingabo abaququzelela urhwebo lwesixeko ekubeni babeqeshe abalimi, amagcisa kunye nabelusi ukuba bathengise urhwebo olwalusetempileni kwaye aba bantu babehlawulwa ngezizana ezincinci zokulima okuziinkozo, imihla okanye uboya.
Ukongezelela, abantu ababizwa ngokuba zii-ziggurats babenezindlu ezinamagumbi amakhulu okuhlalisa abantu abavela kwizixeko ezikufutshane beze kutshintshisa ngemveliso baze ngaloo ndlela bakhuthaze uqoqosho lwezixeko. Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba ucwangciso lwedolophu lwaqala ukulawulwa kwizixeko ezininzi, esinye sezona ziphambili sisixeko saseBhabhiloni kunye nesixeko sikaNebhukadenetsare II.
Ngelixa imisebenzi yobunjineli iqaqambise uthungelwano lwemisele eyenziwa ukuba idibane namanzi oMlambo iTigris noMlambo umEfrate. Ngale nto baphucula ezolimo, ukunkcenkceshela kunye nokuhamba ngenqanawa. Iimpawu eziphambili esinokuzifumana kwizikhumbuzo zezi:
Ibhotwe: ekubeni kwimizobo yaseMesopotamiya kwakungekho uhlobo oluchanekileyo lwamabhotwe, kodwa ke yayiluluhlu lwezakhiwo ezinobukhulu obahlukeneyo kwaye zadityaniswa ngeepaseji ezininzi, iipaseji kunye neegalari ezidityaniswe ngamabala amakhulu kunye neendonga ezijikelezileyo zokukhusela. .
Uninzi lwala mabhotwe ayeyilwe ngolwakhiwo olunemibhobho emine nelinebala elilula kakhulu elalifumana ukukhanya kwelanga kunye nokungena komoya kwaye laliphakanyiswe ngamathambeka amakhulu ngezitena awayenokufikelelwa ngamathambeka amakhulu okanye izinyuko kwaye ayenenkqubo yokuhambisa amanzi. izikhukula ezahlukeneyo ezaqhutywa kukuphuphuma kwemilambo.
Amasango ezi bhotwe ayeyilwe ngamashiti acekethekileyo obhedu awayejikelezwe yimifanekiso eqingqiweyo yeenkunzi zenkomo ezinamaphiko ezineentloko zabantu ezaziyeyona nto ibalulekileyo kubugcisa baseMesopotamiya. Iindonga zamabhotwe zihlotshiswe ngeefrescoes kwisiseko se-lime, ezifakwe ngezitena ezikhazimlayo. Nto leyo eyenza ubugcisa baseMesopotamiya babalaselisa ngendlela elulwelo kakhulu.
Iindonga: Izixeko ezikummandla waseMesopotamiya zazikhuselwe ngeendonga ezinkulu ukuze zikhuseleke ekuhlaselweni. Zikwayilwe kwii-engile ezichanekileyo ezomelezwe ukusuka elunxwemeni ukuya koluleka ngeenqaba ezisikwere. Iminyango yemizi yayimele yenziwe ngesango elikhulu elinqatyisiweyo elinqatyisiweyo, elinqabisekileyo;
Ukuze kuvulwe amasango esi sixeko, ezi zaziyilwe ngendlela yophahla enenkanunu enkulu embindini kwaye emacaleni kwabekwa imifanekiso eqingqiweyo emikhulu yeenkunzi zenkomo ezinamaphiko ezineentloko zabantu, nto leyo yayiluphawu olubaluleke kakhulu lwenkcubeko yaseMesopotamiya. kunye nobugcisa.
Amangcwaba: Ngokwembono yobugcisa kunye nezakhiwo zaseMesopotamiya, amangcwaba ayengenamdla ungako kubemi baseMesopotamiya kuba ayeyilwe njengendawo yophahla olulula lwezitena olwalunamagumbi aliqela, awayenelitye lesikhumbuzo elincinane ngaphandle kwegumbi ngalinye. igalelo elithile kwabangasekhoyo ababelapho.
Ngelixa ngaphakathi emangcwabeni, izinto zakudala ezahlukeneyo zafunyanwa njengezixhobo ezibaluleke kakhulu kwinkcubeko nobugcisa baseMesopotamiya. Ekubeni kwakukho ifanitshala kwakunye nezidumbu zamanenekazi, iimvumi, izicaka, abaqeqeshi nabalindi abaxhonywa ngokwamaqela abonisa ukuba babenezithethe ezinqabe gqitha zemingcwabo kwezi dolophu zommandla waseMesopotamiya.
Ukuba ulifumene eli nqaku malunga nobugcisa beMesopotamiya libalulekile, ndiyakumema ukuba undwendwele la makhonkco alandelayo: