Imvelaphi yeenkcubeko ze-pre-Columbian kunye neempawu

Ukususela kumaza oluntu okuqala afikayo kwada kwafika abantu baseSpeyin kwilizwekazi laseMerika, kwasekwa amaqela afumana uphuhliso olukhulu nolumangalisayo. Apha siya kwazi ukuba kude kangakanani ukuqhubela phambili kwe iinkcubeko pre-Columbian.

IINKCUBEKO ZANGAPHAMBI KWE-COLUMBIAN

Iinkcubeko ze-Pre-Columbian

Xa sithetha ngeenkcubeko zase-Pre-Columbian, kubhekiselwa kubantu ababehleli kummandla esiwaziyo namhlanje njengeeMelika eziqhelekileyo, ngokoqobo de kwafika uChristopher Columbus ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesihlanu. Enyanisweni, nangona kunjalo, "i-pre-Columbian" iquka yonke imbali yeenkcubeko zaseMelika zaseMelika de ezo nkcubeko zaphela, zancipha, okanye zasasazeka phantsi kwempembelelo yaseYurophu, nokuba oku kwenzeka iminyaka emininzi, kwaneenkulungwane, emva kokufika kukaColumbus. kwiLatin America, igama eliqhelekileyo li-pre-Hispanic.

Abemi baseMelika

Ixesha elide bekukho ingxoxo yesayensi malunga nokuba baqala njani kwaye nini abantu baseMelika. Enye yeethiyori ezamkelwa kakhulu ithi abahlali bokuqala baseMelika babengamaza abantu abahambahambayo abavela eAsia abangena kwilizwekazi ngeBering Land Bridge, ngoku iBering Strait, ukutyhubela iinkulungwane ezininzi, uhlalutyo lwe-mitochondrial DNA ezuzwe ngookhokho bama-Amerindi. ubungqina bokuba uninzi lwabantu bemfuza luvela eAsia.

Nangona kunjalo kuye kwaqatshelwa ukuba kukho umahluko omkhulu kumaqela emveli aseMzantsi Melika acebisa ukuba imvelaphi yawo isenokuba ngaphambili iMelanesia okanye iAustralia.

Inyaniso yokuba imihla eyamkelwa kakhulu luluntu lwezenzululwazi, leyo yeClovis eMntla Melika phakathi konyaka we-12900 kunye nomnyaka we-13500 AP (ngaphambi kwangoku) kunye nempucuko yaseMonte Verde eChile eyabhalwa ngonyaka we-14800 AP ibeka thandabuza indawo yokuhlala kuphela ngomkhombandlela ongasentla-mazantsi.

Iinkcubeko zaseMelika

Kulo lonke ilizwekazi laseMelika kwakukho inkcubeko yangaphambi kweColumbian kunye neempucuko ezininzi. Izinto ezibizwa ngokuba ziinkcubeko eziphakamileyo ze-pre-Columbian ziingcali zakhula eMesoamerica naseAndes. Ezi nkcubeko ziphawulwa ngokuphumelela inkqubo entsonkothileyo yezopolitiko nentlalontle kunye nokumelwa okuphawuleka kwezenkolo nobugcisa. Amanye amaqela abantu kwilizwekazi akazange afikelele kwinqanaba lenkcubeko yenkcubeko yangaphambi kweColumbian, ikakhulu ngenxa yokuxinana kwabo kwabantu kunye nendlela yabo yokuphila engaqhelekanga.

IINKCUBEKO ZANGAPHAMBI KWE-COLUMBIAN

Iinkcubeko zaseMelika zangaphambi kweColumbian zidala kwaye zafumanisa izinto ezibalulekileyo kunye nenkqubela phambili efana neekhalenda zabo ezimangalisayo, inkqubela phambili yezolimo efana nokuphucula ekudalweni kweentlobo ezintsha zombona kunye neetapile, inkqubela phambili enkulu yokwakha, iinkqubo zokunkcenkceshela, ukubhala okuphezulu kunye nemathematika, imibutho entsonkothileyo yezopolitiko nezentlalo.

Iinkcubeko zase-Pre-Columbian zaseMntla Melika

Imozulu yoMntla Merika yayingazinzanga ngexesha lamandulo, izinzile malunga neminyaka elishumi lamawaka eyadlulayo. Le mozulu yabangela ukuba ama-paleoindians okuqala afuduke ngokwamaqela amancinane asasazeka kulo lonke elaseMelika, efuduka esuka kwenye indawo esiya kwenye njengoko kudliwe izixhobo zokusebenza. Kumawaka eminyaka kamva, ebudeni bexesha loMbindi weArchaic, ezinye iintlobo zentlangano entsonkothileyo zaqala ukuvela.

Iziduli zodongwe zokuqala ezenzelwe iinjongo zonqulo kwisiza saseMonte Sano kwi-Lower Mississippi Valley yaqala ngo-6500 BC, uninzi lwezi zindunduma zafunyanwa kumazwe akhoyo aseMelika eLouisiana, Mississippi naseFlorida.

Inkcubeko yaseMississippi

Inkcubeko yaseMississippian yenye yeenkcubeko ezinkulu zangaphambi kweColumbian ezazikho kumazantsi mpuma eUnited States phakathi kwenkulungwane yesi-1539 neye-XNUMX. Le nkcubeko ibonakaliswe ngokwakhiwa kweenduli zokungcwaba. Yavela kwiNtlambo yoMlambo iMississippi. Inokuba nefuthe kwiinkcubeko zeTennessee River Valley. Phantse zonke izinto zakudala ezifunyenwe kwinkcubeko yase-Mississippian zibuyela emva kwi-XNUMX, xa umnqobi waseSpain uHernando de Soto wahlola le ndawo. Bonke abantu benkcubeko yaseMississippi babenezona zinto zilandelayo ezifanayo:

Ukwakhiwa kwemigodi yokungcwaba-iipiramidi ezineencopho ezinqamlekileyo, phezu kwezi ngqungquthela, ezinye izakhiwo zakhiwe: izakhiwo zokuhlala, iitempile, ukungcwaba, njl. Ulimo olusekelwe kumbona kwezinye iimeko lukwizinga elikhulu. Intshayelelo kunye nokusetyenziswa kwe-molluscs yomlambo, ngamanye amaxesha elwandle, njengesongezo kudongwe lwe-ceramic. Uthungelwano olubanzi lokurhweba olunabela ngasentshona ukuya kwiiNtaba zeRocky, emantla ukuya kumachibi amaKhulu, emazantsi eGulf of Mexico, nasempuma ukuya kuLwandlekazi lweAtlantiki.

IINKCUBEKO ZANGAPHAMBI KWE-COLUMBIAN

Uphuhliso lweziko lolawulo lweenkosi okanye uluhlu lwamanqanaba ngamanqanaba eenkosi. Uphuhliso kunye nokudityaniswa kokungalingani kwezentlalo. Ukwenziwa kumbindi wegunya elidibeneyo lezopolitiko kunye nenkolo ezandleni zabantu abambalwa okanye omnye nje. Inkcubeko yaseMississippian yayingenalo ukubhala okanye ilitye lokwakha. Babekwazi ukuvelisa isinyithi, kodwa abazange bazinyibilikise.

izizwe zembali

Ekufikeni kwabantu baseYurophu, iinkcubeko zangaphambi kweColumbian zaseMntla Melika zazinenani elikhulu leendlela zokuphila, kwakukho iindawo zokuhlala ezihlala abantu bezolimo kunye namaqela angama-semi-nomadic abazingeli kunye nabaqokeleli. Phakathi kwamaqela ahlala phantsi, amaNdiya asePueblo, amaMandan, amaHidatsa kunye nabanye bavelele. Kwezinye iimeko bakhe iindawo zokuhlala ezinomlinganiselo ophakathi kunye nezixeko ezinjengeCahokia, kwindawo namhlanje ehlala kwisixeko sase-Illinois.

Iinkcubeko zase-Pre-Columbian eMesoamerica

Ummandla oqala kumbindi weMexico uya emazantsi ukuya kumntla-ntshona weCosta Rica waziwa ngokuba yiMesoamerica. Kulo mmandla, iqela leenkcubeko ze-pre-Columbian ezinxulumene enye kwenye ngokwenkcubeko ziphuhliswe ixesha elimalunga namawaka amathathu eminyaka. Ezi nkcubeko zangaphambi kwe-Columbian ziphumelele intuthuko enkulu efana nokwakhiwa kweephiramidi kunye neetempile ezinkulu, ulwazi oluyinkimbinkimbi kwimathematika, i-astronomy kunye neyeza. Baphuhlise ukubhala, iikhalenda ezichanekileyo; baye bagqwesa kubugcisa obugqwesileyo kunye nezolimo ezinzulu.

E-Mesoamerica kwakukho ubukhosi obuninzi, izikumkani kunye nezixeko ezikhuphisanayo, nangona kunjalo iinkcubeko eziphambili ze-pre-Columbian zommandla: i-Olmec, iTeotihuacan, iToltec, iMexica kunye neMayan.

Olmec impucuko

Impucuko ye-Olmec yeyona indala kwimpucuko yaseMesoamerican eyaziwayo. Imodeli yenkcubeko eyasekwa zii-Olmec isebenze njengomzekelo kwiinkcubeko zemveli eziphumeleleyo. Malunga nomnyaka wamawaka amabini anamakhulu amathathu ngaphambi kukaKristu kwidelta yoMlambo iGrijalva, i-Olmecs yokuqala yaqalisa ukuveliswa kweeseramikhi. IiOlmec zayandisa impembelelo yazo kuyo yonke iMexico yanamhlanje ngohlobo lwazo lorhulumente, iitempile zazo neephiramidi zazo, ukubhala kwazo, inzululwazi ngeenkwenkwezi, ubugcisa bazo, imathematika yazo, uqoqosho lwazo nonqulo lwazo.

IINKCUBEKO ZANGAPHAMBI KWE-COLUMBIAN

Impucuko yaseTeotihuacan

Isixeko saseTeotihuacán, esithetha ngolwimi lwesiNahuatl "isixeko soothixo", sibuyele emva ekupheleni kwexesha langaphambili, malunga nekhulu leminyaka emva koKristu. Ayaziwa ngokuqinisekileyo ukuba ngubani na abasunguli bayo, kodwa kucingelwa ukuba i-Otomi yayibandakanyeke kakhulu ekuphuhlisweni kwayo. Emva kokufumana ulawulo lommandla, iTeotihuacán yaphuhliswa ngempumelelo kwaye yaba sesona sixeko sikhulu kungekhona eMesoamerica kuphela, kodwa kwihlabathi liphela.

Esi sixeko sasixhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kwezolimo, ngokuyintloko ekulimeni umbona, iimbotyi nesquash. Nangona kunjalo, icandelo lezopolitiko kunye nezoqoqosho lalisekelwe kwizinto ezithunyelwa ngaphandle: i-ceramics, eveliswe kwiNtlambo yasePuebla-Tlaxcala, kunye nemithombo yendalo yaseSierra de Hidalgo. Zombini ezi mveliso zazixatyiswe kakhulu kulo lonke elaseMesoamerica kwaye zathengiswa njengezinto zodidi olukude eNew Mexico naseGuatemala. Ndiyabulela kule nto, iTeotihuacán yaba yeyona nto iphambili yenethiwekhi yorhwebo yaseMesoamerican.

Impucuko yaseTarascan-Purepecha

Ekuqaleni, uluntu oluninzi oluzimeleyo lwaluhlala kummandla owawuza kuba bubukumkani baseTarascan, ngoko ke inkokeli yabantu basePurépecha, ebizwa ngokuba yiTariacuri, yagqiba ekubeni idibanise uluntu oluhlala kwiindonga zePátzcuaro ibe yindawo enye eyomeleleyo, eyaba yimbumba yamanyama. enye yezona nkcubeko ziphambili zangaphambi kweColumbian zaseMesoamerica.

Ukongezelela kwikomkhulu labo, iTzintzuntzan, obu bukhosi babunolawulo kwizixeko ezingamashumi asithoba. Ubukhosi baseTarascan bahlukaniswa ngolwazi lwabo kwi-metallurgy kwaye basebenzisa ubhedu, isilivere kunye negolide ekwenzeni izixhobo, izinto zokuhombisa, izixhobo kunye nezixhobo.

Impucuko yamaMaya

AmaMayans ayengabadali benkcubeko yaseMesoamerican ephuhlileyo neyaziwayo. Iinkalo ezininzi zenkcubeko yamaMaya ziyafana noqheliselo lwabanye abantu abasingqongileyo, kuquka ukusetyenziswa kweekhalenda ezimbini, inkqubo yamanani edesimali, ukulinywa kombona, iintsomi ezithile ezinjengamalanga amahlanu, unqulo lweNyoka Enentsiba namaMaya. uthixo wemvula, obizwa ngokuba nguChak ngolwimi lwaseMayan.

IINKCUBEKO ZANGAPHAMBI KWE-COLUMBIAN

AmaMayans akazange enze ubukhosi obunye, kodwa babumbene ngamaqela amancinci, ahlala esilwa omnye nomnye.

I-elite ilawula ezolimo kwaye, njengakuyo yonke i-Mesoamerica, yabeka irhafu kwiiklasi eziphantsi, ezivumela ukuba ziqokelele izixhobo ezaneleyo zokwakha izikhumbuzo zoluntu ezivumela amandla abo kunye nolawulo lwentlalo. Ngexesha le-Early Classic era, malunga ne-370, i-Maya elite igcina ubudlelwane obuqinileyo eTeotihuacán, kwaye mhlawumbi iTikal, enye yezona zixeko ezinkulu zamaMaya ngeli xesha, yayiyintsebenziswano ebalulekileyo yaseTeotihuacán, elawula urhwebo kwiGulf Coast nakwiindawo eziphakamileyo.

Impucuko yama-Aztec          

Kuzo zonke iinkcubeko ze-pre-Columbian zaseMesoamerica, uBukhosi base-Aztec bungenye yezona zidumileyo ngobutyebi kunye namandla omkhosi, aphunyezwe ngokuxhaphazwa kwabanye abantu. Ama-Aztec ayevela emantla okanye entshona yeMesoamerica. Abemi belizwe laseMexico iNayarit babekholelwa ukuba iAztlán yasentsomini yayikwisiqithi saseMexcaltitán.

Kungakhathaliseki ukuba imvelaphi, izithethe zenkcubeko zama-Aztec zazingafani kakhulu nezo zeMesoamerica zakudala. Enyanisweni, babeneempawu ezifanayo nabantu baseMesoamerica ephakathi. Ama-Aztec ayethetha ulwimi lwesiNahuatl, olwalusetyenziswa nangamaToltec namaChichimecas awayekho ngaphambili.

Iinkcubeko zase-Pre-Columbian eMzantsi Melika

Ngokutsho koqikelelo, ebudeni bewaka leminyaka lokuqala emahlathini, ezintabeni, kumathafa kunye nonxweme lwaseMzantsi Merika kwakukho abantu abaphakathi kwamashumi amahlanu nekhulu lezigidi. Amaqela aba bemi alungelelaniswa aba ngabahlali abangahlaliyo, apho awona abalulekileyo yayiyiMuisca yaseColombia, iValdivia yase-Ecuador, amaQuechua namaAymara asePeru naseBolivia.

Impucuko yaseNorth Chico

Yimpucuko yangaphambi kweColumbian yaseNorte Chico okanye kwingingqi yeCaral, kunxweme olusemantla ePeru. Lelona lizwe lidala elaziwayo langaphambi kweColumbian eMelika, lakhula phakathi kwenkulungwane yama-XNUMX neye-XNUMX ngaphambi kukaKristu kwinto ebizwa ngokuba lixesha langaphambi kwe-ceramic (ngaxeshanye nokunyuka kwempucuko yaMandulo aseYiputa, eMesopotamiya kunye neNtlambo yase-Indus).

Elinye igama livela kwigama lendawo yeCaral kwiNtlambo yeSupe kumantla eLima, apho kwafunyanwa indawo enkulu yezinto zakudala zale nkcubeko. UCaral wafunyanwa okokuqala ngu-archaeologist wasePeruvia uRuth Martha Shady Solís kwi-1997.

Ngokwe-nomenclature ye-archaeological, i-Norte Chico yinkcubeko yangaphambili ye-pottery yexesha elidlulileyo le-archaic; akukho sampuli yeeseramics, inani lemisebenzi yobugcisa efunyenweyo incinci kakhulu. Eyona mpumelelo inomtsalane yenkcubeko yaseNorte Chico kuyilo lwezakhiwo zezikhumbuzo, ezinamaqonga aqengqelekayo kunye neeplaza ezijikelezayo. Ubungqina bezinto zakudala bubonisa ukuba le nkcubeko yayinobugcisa obuthile bokwenza amalaphu.

Ubukhosi beInca

Ubukhosi be-Inca bobona bukhulu eIndiya eMzantsi Melika ngokwendawo kunye nabemi. Ithathe indawo ukusuka ePasto yangoku eColombia ukuya kuMlambo iMaule eChile. Obu bukhosi babuquka wonke ummandla ngoku obizwa ngokuba yiPeru, iBolivia, ne-Ecuador (ngaphandle kwenxalenye yemimandla ethe tyaba esempuma, egutyungelwe ngamahlathi angenakudlula), inxalenye yeChile, iArgentina, neKholombiya.

Uphando lwezakudala lubonisa ukuba inani elikhulu lezinto eziphunyeziweyo zazuzwa ngamaInca kwimpucuko yangaphambili, kwanakwizizwe ezingabamelwane abazithoba kuzo.

Ngexesha lokubonakala kwimbali ye-Inca eMzantsi Melika, kwakukho uluhlu lwempucuko: i-Moche (eyaziwa ngokuba nemibala yayo yobumba kunye neenkqubo zokunkcenkceshela), i-Huari (lo mbuso wawungumzekelo woBukhosi be-Inca, nangona kunjalo. abemi bayithethile, ngokucacileyo ngolwimi olwahlukileyo, isiAymara), iChimú (i-ceramics kunye neempawu zezakhiwo)

Ezinye impucuko yayizezi: iNazca (eyaziwa ngokudala imigca ebizwa ngokuba yiNazca, kunye neenkqubo zabo zokubonelela ngamanzi angaphantsi komhlaba, iiseramikhi), iPukina (impucuko yesixeko saseTiahuanaco esinabemi abamalunga nama-40 amawaka abahlali, abakwimpuma yedolophu. I-Lake Titicaca), i-Chachapoyas ("Amaqhawe amafu", eyaziwa ngokuba yinqaba yayo eyoyikekayo i-Kuelap, ebizwa ngokuba yi "Machu Picchu del Norte").

Inkcubeko yeChavín

Inkcubeko yaseChavín yimpucuko yangaphambi kweColumbian eyayikho kwiindawo ezisenyakatho zeAndes kwintsimi yePeru yanamhlanje ukusuka kwi-900 ukuya kwi-200 BC. Inkcubeko yaseChavín yayifumaneka kwiNtlambo yaseMosna, apho i-Mosna ne-Huachecsa imilambo idibana khona. Intlambo ibekwe kwindawo ephakamileyo ye-3150 yeemitha ngaphezu komgangatho wolwandle, okwangoku uhlala ngabantu baseQuechua, Hulka kunye nePuna.

Eyona ndawo idumileyo yezinto zakudala zenkcubeko yaseChavín ngamabhodlo eChavín de Huántar, phezulu kwiintaba zeAndean kumantla eLima. Isixeko kukholelwa ukuba sakhiwe malunga ne-900 BC. C. yaye yayisisazulu sonqulo kwimpucuko yaseChavín. Okwangoku, esi sixeko sabhengezwa njengeNdawo yeLifa leMveli yiUNESCO. Kukho ezinye izikhumbuzo ezibalulekileyo zale nkcubeko, umzekelo, inqaba yaseKuntur Wasi, itempile yaseGaragay ene-polychrome reliefs, kunye nabanye.

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