Ukuze ukwazi ukuqonda ngcono amanani kunye Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yamaMaya, tyelela eli nqaku elinomdla lokufumana uhlobo lomfanekiso oqingqiweyo ovela kwixesha langaphambi kwe-Columbian, ukusuka kule nkcubeko yemveli eyanika uluntu ubuncwane obukhulu kulwazi lwayo.
Iimpawu eziqingqiweyo zeMayan
Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yamaMaya yenziwe ngezinto ezivela kwindawo efana neerozi kunye namatye anqabileyo, i-stucco kunye nemithi, iipatheni zayo zenza udibaniso lweempawu ezimangalisayo, iifom zabantu kunye nezilwanyana.
Ukugqamisa ii-reliefs, ii-bas-reliefs kunye ne-three-dimensional imisebenzi, eyayiyinxalenye yokuhlobisa kwezakhiwo okanye izikhumbuzo. Ngale ndlela, zazilungelelaniswa zaba ngamacangci, amacangci, iingcango, izinyuko, imigangatho, ilitye eliqingqiweyo, izibingelelo, amatye amangcwaba, iisilingi, kwanomfanekiso ngamnye.
Nangona amaMayans aqhele ukusebenzisa itshizi okanye isando ukukrola, imikrolo yamatye yagqitywa ngobuchule oburhabaxa kusetyenziswa izinto ezinjengesanti, ikristale yamatye okanye amaqokobhe emollusk, emva koko apeyintwe okanye agqunywe ngesituko.
Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo emikhulu yamaMaya
Nangona isimboli esisetyenziswa kwimifanekiso eqingqiweyo kaMayan ngokuqhelekileyo sintsokothile, sinembali kula manani. Makhe sichaze eminye yemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yobu bugcisa:
chac mool
Ekubeni ingumfanekiso oqingqiweyo womzimba womntu olele isitya esiswini ngezandla zakhe, ifuzisela umthunywa wezithixo.
Yayingumfanekiso owawuhlonelwa ngamaToltec ukufika kwawo eChichen-Itza, nto leyo eyawanyanzela ukuba aphile ngokuvisisana neenkolelo zawo. Ngale ndlela, uninzi lwababhali-mbali bayichaza njengomfanekiso oqingqiweyo kaMayan-Toltec.
ICopan kunye neQuiriguá stelae
Ekubeni awona macwecwe aphawulekayo enkcubeko yamaMaya, uStela E waseQuiriguá ugqamile, olinganisa umgama ongaphezulu kweemitha ezilishumi ubude kwaye unemisebenzi yomsitho. Ngelixa i-Copan Stela H imele i-Waxaklajuun eyongamileyo u-Ub 'K'awiil.
isiphawuli somdlalo webhola
La ngamakhonkco amatye kwaye abekwe embindini wamabala ebhola afana neCopán, Chinkultic kunye neToniná. Ukongeza kokusebenza njengommakishi kumdlalo webhola yerabha, bamele iNyanga.
Eminye imifanekiso eqingqiweyo ibandakanya i-Slave Plaque, i-Chinkultic Disc, umfanekiso kaKumkani u-K'inich Janaab 'Pakal, i-Holmul Friezes, i-altare ye-Turtle.
Kwakhona ukubonakaliswa kokhozi njengesilwanyana esingcwele, umnqamlezo ofuzisela izikhokelo zendalo yonke, i-jaguar ebonisa iLanga kwindlela eya kwihlabathi elingaphantsi komhlaba kunye nenyoka eneentsiba.
Zonke ezi zikhumbuzo zenkcubeko yamaMaya, zigcwele ukugqibelela okumangalisayo, zenza ubutyebi obuxabisekileyo kuluntu.
ubugcisa bemaya
Ukubonakaliswa kwempucuko yamaMeya kubhekiselele kubugcisa bezinto eziphathekayo zale nkcubeko eyaphuhliswa empuma nakumazantsi-mpuma eMesoamerica ukusuka ekupheleni kwe-Preclassic (500 BC - 200 AD) kwaye yahluma kwixesha le-classical (200 AD - 900 AD.).
Uninzi lweendlela zobugcisa bengingqi bezikhona, ebezingasoloko zihambelana nemida eguqukayo yemigaqo-nkqubo yamaMaya. Iinkcubeko ze-Olmec, iToltec, kunye neTeotihuacan zinempembelelo enkulu kubugcisa beMayan.
Le ntetho yenkcubeko yangaphambi kwe-Columbian idlule kwisigaba esandisiweyo sangaphambi kweklasikhi esaphela ngenkulungwane ye-XNUMX, xa iingxaki ezinxulumene noloyiso lwaseSpain zatshabalalisa inkcubeko yenkundla yamaMaya kwaye zaphelisa isithethe sabo sobugcisa.
Iintlobo eziphambili zobugcisa bemveli ezisasetyenziswayo namhlanje kukuveliswa kweempahla kunye noyilo lwezindlu zabalimi.
Imbali yobugcisa beMayan
Emva kwenkulungwane ye-XNUMX nasekuqaleni kweyama-XNUMX, iimpapasho ngobugcisa beMaya kunye nenzululwazi yezinto zakudala zakudala nguStephens, uCatherwood, iMaudslay, uMaler noCharnay, owathi okokuqala wanikela ukufikelela kwiifoto ezithembekileyo nemizobo yezikhumbuzo ezinkulu zeXesha lamaMaya eMaya.
Kwincwadi yakhe 1913, Herbert Spiden, A Study of Maya Art, ngaphezu kwenkulungwane eyadlulayo, wabeka iziseko uphuhliso lwembali yobugcisa Maya, kuquka iconography.
Le ncwadi iqulethe uhlalutyo lwemixholo kunye neepateni ezikhoyo kubugcisa beMaya, ngokukodwa iipatheni zenyoka kunye nenamba, kunye nokuphononongwa "kobugcisa bezinto eziphathekayo," njengokubunjwa kweefacade, iinduli zephahla kunye neetempile.
Unyango lukaSpiden lokulandelelana kobugcisa beMaya kamva lwalungiswa ngokuhlalutya iimotifs zikaTatiana Proskouriakoff, kwincwadi yakhe ethi A Study of Classic Maya Sculpture (1950), "Isifundo seMifanekiso yeMaya yakudala."
Ukuqala kwi-1970s, i-historiography yezikumkani zamaMeya zavela, iPalenque kwindawo yokuqala. Utoliko lwembali yobugcisa lujoyina indlela yembali ekhuthazwa yiProskouriakoff, kunye nendlela yasentsomini eyaqaliswa nguMD Coe, kunye nomfundisi-ntsapho wezobugcisa uLinda Schele njengomqhubi.
Iingcaciso ezisisiseko zobugcisa beMaya zifumaneka kuwo wonke umsebenzi kaSchiele, ngakumbi kwi-Le Sang des rois, ebhalwe ngentsebenziswano nombhali-mbali wezobugcisa uM. Miller.
Imbali yaba bantu nayo yaba ngenxa yokwanda okubukhali kokufumaneka kwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo kunye neeseramikhi, ngenxa yokuba, kwelinye icala, ukugrumba okubanzi kwezinto zakudala kunye, kwelinye icala, ukuphanga ngomlinganiselo ongazange ubonwe ngaphambili.
Ukususela ngo-1973, u-MD Coe uye wapapasha uluhlu lweencwadi ezinemifanekiso kunye nokutolikwa kweenqanawa zaseMaya ezingaziwayo, usebenzisa inkolelo yamawele angamaqhawe ePopol Vuh njengemodeli echazayo.
Ngo-1981, uRobicsek noHales bongeza uluhlu lwe-codex-style kunye nokuhlelwa kweePainted Mayan Containers, etyhila ngakumbi kwihlabathi lemimoya yamaMayan eyayingaziwa ngaphambili. Ngokubhekiselele kuphuhliso, uKarl Taube uphuhlise imixholo emininzi ebalulekileyo kumsebenzi we-iconographic kaSchele.
Iincwadi zangoku kuhlalutyo lobugcisa beMayan zigcina ukuqhubela phambili kweendibano zocweyo zakudala zaseMayan zeceramic, ezimele amava omzimba kunye neemvakalelo kubugcisa beMayan kunye neeglyphs zamaMaya, ezithathwa njengeeyunithi ze-iconographic.
Kwangaxeshanye, inani leemonographs ezinikelwe kubugcisa obubalulekileyo beenkundla ezithile liyaqhubeka nokukhula. Ikhathalogu yomboniso weNkundla Art of the Maya yaMandulo (2004), "Court Art of the Maya yaMandulo," inika uluvo oluhle yakutshanje US and Mexican scholarship kwimbali Maya art.
I-Architecture
Ingqikelelo yeekoloni kunye nezixeko zaseMayan, kwaye ngakumbi leyo yamaziko emisitho apho iintsapho zasebukhosini kunye nenkundla zazihlala khona, zibonakaliswa sisingqisho semigangatho yestucco enkulu yeplaza, ehlala ibekwe kumanqanaba ahlukeneyo, adityaniswe ngokubanzi kwaye rhoqo. Izinyuko eziphakamileyo, ezilawulwa ziitempile zepyramidal.
Ngaphantsi kolawulo olulandelelanayo, izakhiwo eziphambili zaye zandiswa kunye nokongezwa kwemigangatho emitsha yokuzalisa ehlanganiswe nge-stucco. Amadama, imijelo yokunkcenkceshela kunye nedreyini zenza isiseko sehydraulic.
Ngaphandle kweziko lemibhiyozo, ngakumbi kumazantsi ommandla weMaya, ngamanye amaxesha ufana ne-acropolis, yayizizakhiwo zezikhulu ezincinci, iitempile ezincinci kunye neendawo ezingcwele, zijikelezwe zizindlu zabantu abaqhelekileyo.
Ukusuka kumaziko emisitho, iindlela (sacbé), ezazibonakala njengedike, ziye zanwenwela kwezinye izixeko. Ngokuhambelana nengcamango ye "theatre state" (Geertz), ingqwalasela engakumbi ibonakala ihlawulwe kwi-aesthetics kunokuqina kolwakhiwo.
Noko ke, kwanikelwa ingqalelo ekhethekileyo kwindlela ekwalathiswa ngayo ulwakhiwo. Izitayile ezisisiseko zolwakhiwo lwezakhiwo zenza:
- Amaqonga omsitho, ngokubanzi angaphantsi kweemitha ezi-4 ukuphakama.
- Izikwere kunye namabhotwe.
- Ezinye izakhiwo zokuhlala, njengezindlu zababhali kunye nendlu kamasipala enokwenzeka eCopan.
- Iitempile zephiramidi kunye neetempile, ezokugqibela zihlala zinemingcwabo okanye i-infill kwisiseko sazo, zineetempile phezulu. Umzekelo ophawulekayo kukuxinana kweetempile ze-dynastic mortuary kwi-North Acropolis yaseTikal.
- Amabala omdlalo webhola.
Iiyunithi eziphambili zesakhiwo ziquka:
- Iiphiramidi ezithathu, ezinesakhiwo esibalaseleyo esijikelezwe zizakhiwo ezibini ezincinci ezijonge ngaphakathi, zonke zixhonywe kwiqonga elinye lesiseko;
- Amaqela E, aqulathe iqonga lesikwere elinephiramidi ephantsi enezinyuko ezine kwicala elingasentshona kunye nolwakhiwo olude, okanye ngenye indlela izakhiwo ezithathu ezincinci, kwicala elingasempuma;
- Iiseti zephiramidi ezingamawele, ezineephiramidi ezifanayo ezizidanga ezine, ezibonakala kwicala elingasempuma nakwintshona yesikwere esincinci; isakhiwo esineminyango esithoba ngasezantsi; kunye nendawo encinane ebiyelweyo kwicala elingasemantla apho kukho ilitye elikroliweyo elinesibingelelo salo, esisisikhumbuzo somsitho wokugqibela wekatun (k’atun) owenziwa ngukumkani.
umkroli wamatye
Indlela ephambili ye-Preclassic ye-sculptural yengingqi ye-Maya yayiyi-Izapa, isixeko esikhulu esikunxweme lwe-Pacific, apho inani le-stelae kunye nezibingelelo (i-frog-shaped) zifunyenwe ezibandakanya i-motifs nayo ifunyenwe kwi-Olmec art.
Uninzi lwe-stelae olungabhalwanga luhlala lubonisa imixholo yasentsomini kunye neengxelo, ezinye zazo ezibonakala zihambelana nentsomi yamawele angamaqhawe ePopol Vuh.
Nangona kunjalo, akukaziwa ukuba abantu base-Izapa babengamaMayan, ngokwemiqathango yobuhlanga. Iindidi eziphambili zemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yamatye yexesha le-classical yile:
- imiqobo; amacwecwe amatye amade, aqhele ukukrolwa kwaye abhalwe, kwaye ahlala ekhatshwa zizibingelelo ezijikelezayo. Olona phawu lubalaseleyo lwexesha lamandulo kukuba uninzi lwazo lwaluphethe imifuziselo yabalawuli bezixeko ababekuzo, ngokufuthi befanekiselwa njengoothixo. Ngelixa ubuso babalawuli, ngakumbi ngexesha leLate Classic, buyindalo ngokwesitayile, ngokuqhelekileyo ababonisi iimpawu zomntu ngamnye, ngaphandle kwezinto ezimbalwa eziphawulekayo, ezifana noStela 35 wasePiedras Negras. Awona matye aziwayo aseCopán naseQuiriguá. Zikhethekile kwiinkcukacha zazo ezintsonkothileyo, kunye nezo zaseQuiriguá ngokuphakama kwazo; Umzekelo, uStela E de Quiriguá ulinganisa ngaphezu kweemitha ezisi-7 ngaphezu komhlaba kwaye unabela ngeemitha ezi-3 ngaphantsi komhlaba. ICopan kunye neToniná stelae ngokubanzi zikrolwe ngaphambili nasemacaleni. E-Palenque, nangona liziko elibalulekileyo lobugcisa beMayan, akukho stela esiphawulekayo esigciniweyo.
- iilintele kungenela izakhiwo. I-Yaxchilan ngokukodwa iyaziwa ngenani elikhulu leengqayi ezinzulu zoncedo, ezinye zezona ndawo zidumileyo apho zizinyanya okanye, mhlawumbi, izithixo zasekhaya.
- Iipaneli kunye neebhodi, ezibekwe kwiindonga, iintsika zezakhiwo kunye namacala amaqonga. I-Palenque idume ngokukodwa ngamacwecwe amakhulu ahombisa ingaphakathi leengcwele zetempile yeGrupo de las Cruces, kunye nokucokisa imisebenzi yobugcisa efana ne "Palace Tablet" kunye ne "Slave Tablet", kunye neepaneli ze amaqonga eetempile ze-XIX kunye ne-XXI. inokubandakanywa kolu didi.
- Izibingelelo ezijikelezayo okanye ezixande, maxa wambi ixhaswa ngamatye amathathu okanye amane. Basenokuba ngokupheleleyo okanye ngokuyinxenye, njenge "isibingelelo sofudo" e-Copán, okanye banokuba nomfanekiso wokukhulula ngaphezulu, ngamanye amaxesha oquka uphawu olulodwa lwe-Ajaw day, njenge-El Caracol kunye ne-Toniná.
- i-zoomorphic Amatye amakhulu aqingqiweyo, ukumila kwawo kufana nesilwanyana, ehlanganiswe nemihlobiso ecacileyo. I-zoomorphs ibonakala ilinganiselwe ebukumkanini baseQuiriguá ekupheleni kwexesha leklasikhi; kusenokwenzeka ukuba zazisetyenziswa njengezibingelelo.
- iimpawu zomdlalo webhola; Imizobo engqukuva ebekwe kwi-axis esembindini webala lokudlala (njengezo zaseCopán, eChinkultic, naseToniná), zidla ngokubonisa izigcawu ezisuka kowona mdlalo webhola.
- Iitrone ilitye elinesihlalo esikhulu sesikwere kunye nomva ngamanye amaxesha oqingqiweyo kunye nokubonakaliswa kwemifanekiso yabantu. Eminye imizekelo evela ePalenque naseCopán ineenkxaso ezimele izithixo zecosmological carrier (Bacab, Chaak).
- Umfanekiso oqingqiweyo ongqukuva yaziwa ngakumbi eCopán naseToniná. Umelwe ngumfanekiso oqingqiweyo, njengombhali ohleliyo waseCopán nangabalinganiswa abathile abathinjiweyo kunye nelitye elincinane lelitye laseToniná; yezakhiwo ezifuziselayo, ezifana nezithixo ezingamashumi amabini zombona kwifaçade yetempile yaseCopán, nakwimifanekiso eqingqiweyo emikhulu kakhulu ebiyinxalenye yoyilo loyilo, njengeejaguar kunye neemvumi zemfene eCopán.
Ukukrolwa ngamaplanga
Nangona imizobo yeplanga kucingelwa ukuba yayiqhelekile kwixesha elidluleyo, yimizekelo embalwa kuphela eye yasinda. Uninzi lwemikrolo yenkulungwane ye-XNUMX yayigqalwa njengezinto zokunqula izithixo kwaye yatshatyalaliswa ngabasemagunyeni bamathanga aseSpain.
Eyona mizekelo ibalulekileyo ukusuka kwixesha leClassic ibandakanya iilintele zomthi ezisetyenziwe kakuhle, ngakumbi ezo zisuka kwiiphiramidi eziphambili eTikal kunye nekopi evela kwindawo ekufuphi yase-El Zotz.
Imizobo yomthi yeTikal, nganye inemiqadi emininzi, isusela kwinkulungwane yesi-XNUMX kwaye ibonisa ukumkani ehleli esihlalweni sakhe enomfanekiso okhuselayo ngasemva ngendlela yeTeotihuacan “inyoka yemfazwe,” ijaguar, okanye umfuziselo womntu. uthixo wejaguar womlilo wasemhlabeni.
Ezinye iincam zaseTikal zibonisa ukumkani otyebileyo, onxibe isambatho sejaguar, emi phambi kwesihlalo sakhe; kwaye, okona kudume kakhulu, ukumkani owoyisileyo, onxibe njengothixo wokufa wenkanyezi, emi phezu kwepalanquin phantsi komzobo wenyoka enamanzi.
Umzekelo onqabileyo wento esebenzayo yibhokisi encinci yeTortuguero ehlanganiswe nombhalo omde we-hieroglyphic. Phakathi kwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yokhuni yamahhala, umfanekiso ohloniphekileyo wendoda ehleliyo uvelele, uvela kwi-XNUMX yekhulu leminyaka, kwaye mhlawumbi usebenza njengenkxaso yesibuko.
imodeli ye-stucco
Ngexesha le-Late Preclassics, i-stucco ehlanganiswe ne-plaster igubungele imigangatho kunye nezakhiwo zamaziko asezidolophini kwaye yenza isakhelo semifanekiso eqingqiweyo yamatye.
Ngokufuthi iipaneli ezinkulu zobuso, ezinemifuziselo ephezulu yeentloko zezithixo (ingakumbi ilanga, imvula, nezithixo zomhlaba), zazincanyathiselwa kwiindonga ezisigcinayo ezigudle izinyuko zala matye. -imilo. iitempile (umz. Kohunlich).
Imodeli kunye ne-stucco reliefs inokugubungela isakhiwo sonke, njengetempile yaseRosalila eCopán eqala ngenkulungwane ye-XNUMX. Inemigangatho yodaka egcinwe kakuhle, ngemibala yayo yokuqala, kwaye inikezelwe kukumkani wokuqala waseCopán, uYax K'uk' Mo'. I-Preclassic yasemva kwexesha kunye ne-Classic stucco friezes, iindonga, iintsika, kunye namakhaka aneenkqubo ezahlukeneyo zokuhombisa, ngamanye amaxesha kunye nesimboli esinzima.
Izisombululo ezahlukeneyo zisetyenzisiwe ukwahlula kunye nokuyalela imiphezulu ye-stucco yezakhiwo, kubandakanya nokwakhiwa kwe-serial. Iindonga ze "Temple of the Night Sun" e-El Zotz, ezithandana ne-Early Classic.
Zenziwe ngothotho lweepaneli zeemaski zothixo ezinoguquko olufihlakeleyo, ngelixa i-Balamku Palace frieze, ekwayi-Early Classic, yayinothotho lwemifanekiso yabalawuli abane abahleli kwinyoka evulekile imilomo yezilwanyana ezine ezahlukeneyo (kubandakanya isele) ezinxulumene neentaba zokomfuziselo.
Kungenjalo, iifriezes zinokuthi zibekwe phezu kwerula enye, ekwahleli kwintaba yokomfuziselo (ezaliswe ngumbona), njengoko ibonwa kwiHolmul frieze, eneenyoka ezimbini ezinamaqhina eziphuma phantsi kwesihlalo somlawuli, kunye nenye ifrieze, yaseXultún, e. apho uKumkani asebenzisa ibha enkulu yomsitho enamanani asakhulayo afana neejaguar.
Umkhenkce ovela kwitempile yasePlaceres, uQuintana Roo, owaqala ekuqaleni kweklasikhi, unephaneli enkulu yemaski enenkosi encinci okanye isithixo esiphakathi kunye nezithixo ezimbini ezisecaleni zika "tat'omkhulu" (umama) ezolula iingalo zazo.
Iifrieze zihlala zohlulwa zibe ngamacandelo. Ngokomzekelo, i-frieze evela ku-El Mirador, edibene ne-Late Preclassic, ibonisa i-interspaces yomzimba wenyoka engapheliyo egcwele iintaka zamanzi kunye namacandelo omgca wamanzi ongezantsi kunye namanani okubhukuda.
I-classical frieze evela kwibhotwe e-Acanceh yohlulwe yangaphaneli ebonisa imifanekiso yezilwanyana eyahlukeneyo evuselela indlela, ngelixa udonga lwase-Toniná lubonisa amasimi amile okwedayimani aphakamisa i-scaffolding kunye neziganeko ezibalisayo zanamhlanje eziqhubekayo ezinxulumene nedini.
Iicrests ezityatyekiweyo zetempile zifana nezinye iifriezes ezikhankanywe ngasentla, kuba zibonisa ngokubanzi ukubonakaliswa okukhulu kwabalawuli, abathi nabo bahlale entabeni yokomfuziselo kwaye banokubekwa kwindawo yendalo yonke, njengakwimeko yendalo. Itempile yeLanga ePalenque.
Eminye imizekelo yeemodeli ze-stucco eziqala kwixesha le-Classic ziquka iintsika zeNdlu yasePalenque, ehonjiswe ngoluhlu lokubonakaliswa kwamanenekazi kunye namanenekazi kwiingubo zesithethe, kunye "ne-baroque" yokungena ye-stucco yaseChenes, esukela kwi-Late. I-Classic , ebonisa amanani abantu bendalo kwi-Acropolis ye-Ek' Balam.
Imodeli ye-stucco yexesha eliqhelekileyo iquka imifanekiso yokwenene yomgangatho olingana nowamaRoma amandulo, njengoko kungqinwa yimizekelo ebalaseleyo yemifanekiso yestucco elingana nobomi beenkokeli zasePalenque kunye naleyo yezikhulu zase toniná.
Eminye yale mizobo yentloko yayiyinxalenye yemifanekiso yestucco enobungakanani bobomi ehombise iicrests zetempile. Ukwenziwa kwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo kwakhona kusikhumbuza imifanekiso ethile yodongwe yaseJaina.
Umzobo oseludongeni
Ngaphandle kwento yokuba imizobo embalwa yamaMaya iye yasinda ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, ngenxa yemozulu efumileyo yamathafa akuMbindi Merika.
Intsalela ebalulekileyo ifunyenwe phantse kuzo zonke iindawo zokuhlala ezinkulu zenkundla, ngakumbi kwihlomela-dolophu. izakhiwo ezifihliweyo phantsi kwezongezo zoyilo lwamva.
Iindonga zivame ukwenza iipatheni ezibonisa ukuphindaphinda okuthile, njengeempawu zeentyatyambo, kunye neenguqu ezifihlakeleyo, kwiindonga zeNdlu E yePalenque Palace; Imiboniso yobomi bemihla ngemihla, njengakwesinye sezakhiwo ezijikeleze iplaza esembindini yeCalakmul nakwibhotwe eChilonche.
Okanye imiboniso yezithethe ezibandakanya ukumelwa koothixo, njengakwimizobo eseludongeni yeetempile zaseYucatán kunye nonxweme olusempuma lwaseBelize.
Basenokufundisa umlinganiswa obalisayo ngakumbi, ngokwesiqhelo kunye neglyphic "subtitles" zibandakanyiwe. Imizobo enemibala emininzi yaseBonampak, umzekelo, isuka kwi-790 AD. C. naleyo inabela ngeendonga neengqameko zamagumbi amathathu aqhubekayo, abonisa imifanekiso emangalisayo yobuhandiba, idabi namadini, kwakunye neqela lezimntwiso zesithethe phakathi kumqolo weemvumi.
Imizobo eseludongeni yaseSan Bartolo, eyaqala ngo-100 B.C. C. ubhekisela kwiintsomi zothixo wombona wamaMaya kunye newele leqhawe uHunahpú, yaye umele ukubekwa etroneni kabini; Nangona ibuyele emva kwiinkulungwane ezininzi ukuya kwixesha leklasikhi, isitayile sele siphuhliswe ngokupheleleyo, sinemibala echuliweyo nethotyiweyo xa kuthelekiswa neBonampak okanye iCalakmul.
Kwigumbi laseCacaxtla, kwimpuma-kumbindi weMexico, ngaphandle kommandla waseMayan, imizobo eseludongeni epeyintwe ngendlela eqhelekileyo yesiMaya yaseMayan, enemibala edla ngokuba yomeleleyo, yafunyanwa inabela phezu kweemitha ezingama-20 kwaye ibandakanya indawo yokulwa eqatha; imifanekiso yeenkosi ezimbini zamaMaya, emi phezu kweenyoka; kunye nentsimi enkcenkceshelwayo yombona nekoko, etyelelwe sisithixo sorhwebo.
Ukupeyintwa eludongeni kuyenzeka nakwimiqolomba, kumangcwaba (umz. Blue River) nakwimiqolomba (umzekelo, iNaj Tunich), idla ngokwenziwa ngomnyama kumphezulu ongekho mhlophe, ngamanye amaxesha kusetyenziswa ipeyinti ebomvu okongeziweyo.
Iivaults zaseYucatan zihlala zibonisa umboniso wesithixo esibekwe etroneni, uK'awiil (umz. Ek' Balam).
Umbala oluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka oqaqambileyo, owaziwa ngokuba yi "Mayan blue", ugcinwe ukutyhubela iinkulungwane ngenxa yeempawu zawo ezizodwa zeekhemikhali; Lo mbala ukhona eBonampak, eCacaxtla, eJaina, e-El Tajín nakwiindawo ezithile zoonongendi. Ukusetyenziswa kwe-Mayan blue kwaqhubeka kwada kwayinkulungwane ye-XNUMX, xa ubuchule bulahlekile.
ukubhala kunye neencwadi
Inkqubo yokubhala yaseMeya yenziwe malunga ne-1,000 yoonobumba abahlukeneyo okanye iiglyphs, kwaye njengeenkqubo ezininzi zokubhala zakudala, ngumxube we-syllabics kunye neelogogram. Lo mbhalo wawusetyenziswa ukususela kwinkulungwane yesithathu ngaphambi kukaKristu. C. de kwaba kamsinya nje emva koloyiso lwaseSpeyin ngenkulungwane ye-XNUMX.
Okwangoku, kuye kwenzeka ukucazulula inxalenye enkulu yabalinganiswa, kodwa intsingiselo yabo kunye noqwalaselo njengesicatshulwa azisoloko zisaziwa.
Iincwadi zazisongwa kwaye zenziwe ngamaphepha amaxolo okanye ngesikhumba, agqunywe ngoluhlu lwe-adhesive stucco ukuze kubhalwe; zazikhuselwe ngesikhumba sejaguar okanye ngamaplanga.
Ekubeni wonke umntu ovumisa ngethamsanqa wayefuna incwadi, kukholelwa ukuba inani elikhulu leencwadi lalinokubakho. Okwangoku, zithathu kuphela iincwadi zePostclassic zamaMaya ezigciniweyo: iDresden, iParis, kunye neekhowudi zaseMadrid.
Incwadi yesine, iGrolier, yiMayan-Toltec kuneMayan; ngaphandle kweempawu zekhalenda, ayiqulathanga nakuphi na okubhaliweyo. I-fragmentary kunye nomgangatho ophantsi wobugcisa, inezitenxo ezininzi, ngoko ke ubunyani bayo bebungathandabuzeki ixesha elide.
Uninzi lweekhowudi zinomxholo wokuvumisa nowobubingeleli, iialmanacs ezineetafile zokuvumisa ngeenkwenkwezi kunye neenkqubo zezithethe; I-codex yaseParis ikwaquka neziprofeto zaseKatun. Ingqwalasela eninzi ihlawulwe kwibhalansi ehambelanayo yesicatshulwa kunye nemifanekiso.
Ukongeza kwiitekisi ezibandakanyiweyo kwii-codices, kwakukho iskripthi se-cursive esinomlinganiso onamandla ngakumbi, ofunyenwe kwimizobo eqingqiweyo kunye ne-ceramics, kwaye ifaniswe ngamatye kwiipaneli zePalenque (ezifana ne "Table" ye-96 glyphs ").
Izicatshulwa zihlala zivalelwe kwizikwere 'iibhokisi' zeemilo ezahlukeneyo ngaphakathi komelo. Imizobo eseludongeni inokuthi yenziwe ngokupheleleyo ngeetekisi (Ek' Balam, Naj Tunich) okanye, ngokunqabileyo, izibalo zokuvumisa ngeenkwenkwezi (Xultun).
Ezi zibhalo, ngamanye amaxesha zibhalwa kumphezulu we-stucco omhlophe, kwaye zenziwe ngononophelo oluthile kunye nobuhle, zifana nokwandiswa kwamaphepha eencwadi.
Iiglyphs zikho yonke indawo kwaye zibhaliwe kuyo yonke indawo ekhoyo, kubandakanywa nomzimba womntu. Iiglyphs ngokwazo zineenkcukacha kakhulu, kwaye iilogograms ngokukodwa zinobuqili.
Ukusuka kwimbono yobugcisa kunye nembali, iiglyphs zinokuqwalaselwa njengezinto zobugcisa. Ngenxa yoko, abakroli baseCopán kunye neQuiriguá baziva bekhululekile ukuguqula izinto zeglyphic kunye neempawu zekhalenda zibe yimifanekiso emincinci enopopayi ("IiGlyphs ezinamanani agqityiweyo").
I-Ceramics kunye "nesitayile secodex"
Ngokungafaniyo neengqayi zomdongwe ezisetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo, ezifumaneka ngobuninzi phakathi kweengqushu zeendawo zakudala, eyona ngqayi ihonjiswe kakhulu (iivazi zecylindrical, iipleyiti ezineziciko, iivazi, iigoblets) yayisakuba "yimali yentlalo" yezidwangube. njengelifa. usapho, kananjalo bakhapha izidwangube emangcwabeni abo.
Isithethe sobukhosi semithendeleko yokutshintshiselana ngezipho kunye notyelelo lwemisitho, kunye nokulinganisa okwenzekayo ngokungenakuphepheka ngexesha lokutshintshana, kuhamba indlela ende ekuchazeni inqanaba eliphezulu lobugcisa eliphunyeziweyo kwixesha lakudala.
Yenziwe ngaphandle kwevili lombumbi, udongwe oluhonjisiweyo lwalupeyintwe ngobuchule, luqingqelwe ukukhululeka, lucukucezwe, okanye ingakumbi ekuqaleni kweClassic, istuccoed, ngokuqaba ipeyinti kumphezulu wodongwe olumanzi, ubuchule obuphuhliselwe iifrescoes zaseTeotihuacan.
Izinto zeceramic ezixabisekileyo zenziwa kwiiworkshops ezininzi ezisasazwa kuzo zonke izikumkani zamaMeya; Ezinye zezona zinto zidumileyo zihambelana ne "Chamá style", "isitayela seHolmul", "isitayela se-Ik", kwaye, kwi-ceramics eqingqiweyo, "isitayela seChocholá".
Umhombiso isitya Ceramic features iinguqu enkulu, ebonisa imiboniso ibhotwe, amasiko inkundla, iintsomi, glyphs zokuvumisa, kunye neetekisi dynastic ezithathwe kwiimbali, kwaye iyaqhubeka ukudlala indima ebalulekileyo ekwakhiweni ngokutsha ubomi bamaMaya kunye neenkolelo zexesha lakudala.
Imifanekiso yeengqayi kunye neetekisi ezipeyintwe ngombala omnyama nobomvu kwimvelaphi emhlophe, efana namaphepha eencwadi asongiweyo, aziwa ngokuba yi "codex style"; Umzobo kunye nokudibana kwemifanekiso kunye neekhowudi ezintathu zamaMaya eziseleyo, ubuncinci ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, zibuthathaka.
Imizobo ye-ceramic ye-ceramic iquka izitya ze-Early Classic ezineziciko ezixhonywe ngabantu kunye nezilwanyana; Ezinye zezi zitya, zitshiswe zimnyama, ziphakathi kweyona misebenzi ibalaseleyo yobugcisa beMaya.
Izinto ezenziwe ngodongwe zikwaquka iziqhumiso kunye neendawo zokungcwaba. Iziqhumiso ezihonjiswe ngokutyebileyo zexesha le-Classic Palenque ubukumkani ziyaziwa kakuhle, kunye nobuso obuyimodeli yesithixo okanye ukumkani oncanyathiselwe kwi-cylinder emide.
Oyena thixo umelweyo, unxulunyaniswa nomlilo womhlaba, ukwahombisa ii-urns ezinkulu zokungcwaba kwisebe laseGuatemala lase-El Quiché. Izimntwiso zababingeleli zezithixo, ezidla ngokuphatha amadini.
Okokugqibela, imizobo yeseramikhi, emininzi eyenziwe ngokubumba kwaye icace kakhulu kwaye iyinyani, yenza uhlobo oluncinci kodwa olufundisa kakhulu.
Ukongeza kwizithixo, "abalinganiswa bezilwanyana", abalawuli kunye nabancinci, bamele abanye abalinganiswa abaninzi, kuquka imiboniso yobomi bemihla ngemihla. Eminye yala manani i-ocarinas kwaye isenokuba ibisetyenziswa kwizithethe. Eyona mizekelo ichukumisayo ivela kwisiqithi saseJaina.
Amatye anqabileyo kunye nezinye izinto eziqingqiweyo
Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba iiMeya, ezazingenazo izixhobo zetsimbi, zenze izinto ezininzi ezivela kwi-jade (i-jadeite), into eninzi kakhulu kunye nexineneyo, equka izinto ezininzi (zasebukhosini) iimpahla ezifana neepleyiti zebhanti, i-earmuffs, amacici kunye nokunye. zibiza kakhulu.
Ngamanye amaxesha amaCelt (okt izihombiso zezembe) ayekrolwa ngomfanekiso ofana nowokusetyenzwa kwerula, okufana ne "Leiden plate" eqala kwi-Early Classic.
Owona mzekelo waziwa kakhulu wemaski mhlawumbi yimaski yokufa ka-K'inich Janaab' Pakal, umlawuli wasePalenque, equlathe iipleyiti zejade ezimile ngendlela engaqhelekanga okanye itesserae kunye nomama-weperile kunye namehlo e-obsidian.
Enye imaski yokufa, yeNdlovukazi yasePalenque, ineepleyiti ze-malachite. Ngokufanayo, ezinye iinqanawa ze-cylindrical ezivela kwi-Tikal zinomgca wangaphandle we-square jade discs. Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo emininzi yamatye yayihonjiswe ngejeyidi.
Ezinye izinto ezikroliweyo nezikroliweyo ziquka ilitye lenyengane, iqokobhe, nethambo, ebezisoloko zifunyanwa kwindawo ekugcinwa kuyo izinto ezifihlakeleyo nakumangcwaba. Okubizwa ngokuba yi "eccentric flints" zizinto zemikhosi, zokusetyenziswa okungaqinisekanga, ezithi, kwiifom zazo ezicacileyo, zinemilo emide.
Ngesiqhelo neentloko eziliqela ezandisiweyo kwicala elinye okanye omabini, ngamanye amaxesha emele Lightning Uthixo (K'awiil), kodwa amaxesha amaninzi i anthropomorphic umbane bolt kunye neempawu umbona ofunjwe uthixo.
Amaqokobhe ayesetyenziselwa ukuvelisa iidiski kunye nezinye izinto zokuhombisa ezibonisa iintloko zabantu, kwaye mhlawumbi iintloko zeminyanya kunye nezithixo; Amaxilongo oonokrwece ayehonjiswe ngendlela efanayo.
Amathambo abantu nawezilwanyana ayehonjiswe ngemiqondiso ekroliweyo kunye nemiboniso. Ingqokelela yamathambo amancinci atshintshiweyo, avela kumngcwabo wasebukhosini wenkulungwane ye-XNUMX ebekwe kwiTempile yeJaguar enkulu eTikal, iqulethe eminye yemifanekiso eqingqiweyo eyaziwa ngamaMaya, kubandakanywa nemiboniso emininzi ebonisa ukubonakaliswa kothixo wombona. ukhwele iphenyane.
Ubugcisa obusetyenziswayo kunye nokuhombisa umzimba
Iingubo ze-cotton zexesha le-Classic azizange zisinde, kodwa imiboniso yobugcisa be-Maya inika ulwazi olucacileyo malunga nokubonakala kwayo kwaye, kuncinci, umsebenzi wabo wentlalontle. Ziquka amalaphu acekethekileyo asetyenziswa njengeemvulophu, iikhethini, kunye nezisese kumabhotwe. kunye nempahla. Ubuchule bokudaya busenokuba buquka ikat.
Isinxibo semihla ngemihla sasixhomekeke kwisikhundla sasekuhlaleni. Abafazi abahloniphekileyo babenxiba iilokhwe ezinde, amabhanti, kunye namalaphu asebukhosini, eshiya imilenze kunye nomzimba ongaphezulu ngaphandle kokuba kunxitywe iibhatyi okanye iingubo. Omabini amadoda nabafazi babekwazi ukunxiba iiqhiya.
Izinxibo ezinxitywa kwimisitho nakwimibhiyozo emininzi zazihombisa yaye zicacile; iintloko ezenziwe ngezilwanyana zazixhaphakile. Esona sinxibo sasinobugocigoci yayisisinxibo sikakumkani, esiboniswe kwilitye lesikhumbuzo sasebukhosini, esinezinto ezininzi ezinentsingiselo yokomfuziselo.
Ikwaziwa kuphela ngokumelwa ngamabona-ndenzile kwimizobo eqingqiweyo neyodongwe, ingobozi kunye nokuluka kufuneka kube yinto ekhoyo kuyo yonke indawo; ipop edumileyo ("mat") motif iyangqina ukubaluleka kwayo.
Imihombiso yomzimba yayisoloko iqulathe iipateni ezipeyintwe ebusweni nasemzimbeni, kodwa inokuba sisigxina ngokomlinganiswa, iphawula umahluko ngokweminyaka kunye nesikhundla sentlalo. Imihombiso esisigxina yayiquka ukwakheka kokakayi okwenziweyo, ukwenza umvambo ebusweni, ukugcwaliswa kwamazinyo, kunye nokongezwa kweinlay.
ingqokelela yemyuziyam
Kukho inani elikhulu leemyuziyam ezinezinto zakudala zaseMayan kwiingqokelela zazo. ISiseko sokuPhucula iziFundo zaseMesoamerican (FAMSI) siquka iimyuziyam ezingaphezulu kwama-250 kugcino lwedatha kwiimyuziyam ezinobugcisa beMayan kunye noMbutho waseYurophu wamaMayanists (WAYEB) udwelisa malunga neemyuziyam ezingamashumi amahlanu, eYurophu kuphela.
KwisiXeko saseMexico, iMyuziyam yeSizwe yeAnthropology inengqokelela enkulu ngokukodwa yezinto zakudala zaseMayan. Iimyuziyam ezininzi zengingqi eMexico zinengqokelela ebalulekileyo, kubandakanywa iMyuziyam ye "Román Piña Chan" yeStelae eCampeche, i "Palacio Cantón" iMyuziyam yeNgingqi yaseYucatán eMérida, kunye ne "Carlos Pellicer Cámara" iMyuziyam yeNgingqi yeAnthropology eVillahermosa, eTabasco. .
EGuatemala, ezona ingqokelela zibalulekileyo zezo zeMyuziyam yasePopol Vuh kunye neMyuziyam yeSizwe yeArchaeology kunye ne-Ethnology, zombini ezifumaneka kwisiXeko saseGuatemala.
IMyuziyam yaseBritane eLondon, iMetropolitan Museum of Art eNew York, iPeabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology eCambridge, Massachusetts, kunye neMyuziyam yeArchaeology neAnthropology kwiYunivesithi yasePennsylvania zezinye iimyuziyam ezibonisa ingqokelela ephawulekayo. kwizinto zamaMaya.
IMyuziyam yeNkcubeko e-Basel, eSwitzerland, inoluhlu lwee-Tikal lintels zokhuni; IMyuziyam ye-Ethnological eBerlin, eJamani, inengqokelela enkulu yezinto zakudala zaseMayan. EBelgium, iiMyuziyam zaseRoyal zoBugcisa kunye neMbali eBrussels zigcina ingqokelela ebalulekileyo.
IMyuziyam yaseMbali yeMbali yeNdalo eChicago inengqokelela ephawulekayo yeengqayi zaseMayan kunye neMyuziyam yaseCleveland yoBugcisa eOhio ineyona ngqokelela inkulu yezinto zakudala zaseMayan eUnited States.
IMyuziyam yaseMelika eMadrid igcina ingqokelela enkulu yezinto ezivela ePalenque; Ikwayimyuziyam apho iCodex yaseMadrid igcinwa khona. Ezinye iimyuziyam eziphawulekayo zaseYurophu yiMyuziyam yeSizwe yeEthnology eLeiden eNetherlands kunye neMyuziyam yaseRietberg eZurich eSwitzerland.
Ubugcisa be-Pre-Columbian
Ubugcisa be-Pre-Columbian ligama elinikezelwe kwiseti yemisebenzi yobugcisa kunye neyengqondo, enjengomzobo, i-architecture, ubugcisa bamatye, i-ceramics, iingubo, isinyithi kunye nokupeyinta okwenziwa ngabemi belizwekazi laseMelika kwixesha langaphambi kohlaselo lwaseYurophu.
Le yeyona nto ibalulekileyo evumela ulwazi kunye nokuqatshelwa kwempucuko yangaphambi kweColumbian, ubungqina bezinga labo lophuhliso kunye nokukwazi ukuguqula indawo yabo.
Nangona igama elithi "pre-Columbian" lichazwa ngokubanzi njengento yonke eyayikumazwe aseMerika ngaphambi kokuba iSpanishi ifike eMelika ngo-1492, ngokwenene ibhekisela kwixesha apho iinkcubeko ezahlukeneyo zaphuhliswa zashiya uphawu olusisigxina. . Ubugcisa kwaye ngoku zingumxholo wezifundo zesayensi.
Ukufika kwabantu baseSpain, asingabo bonke abantu baseMelika ababekwimeko efanayo yenkcubeko, kwaye kwakukho abo babenazo zonke iimpawu zempucuko kunye nabanye ababekwinqanaba langaphambili lendaleko.
Yiyo loo nto i-anthropologists kunye nabembi bezinto zakudala baye bachaza iindawo ezimbini. Oko kubizwa ngokuba yi-nyukliya yaseMelika kuhlala abantu abaphucukileyo kwaye ibandakanya iMexico, inxalenye yoMbindi Merika kunye neeAndes kunye neendawo eziyingqongileyo, ukusuka eColombia ukuya eChile.
Igama elithi "ixesha lakudala" laqala ngophuhliso lwenkcubeko yamaMayan malunga ne-292 kwaye yaphela ngokuhla kwayo okubonakalayo malunga ne-900. Yaqulunqwa ngabo bakholelwa ukuba eli xesha limele incopho yobukhazikhazi bobugcisa be-pre-Columbian.
Le ngcamango okwangoku ixoxwa ngabo babonisa ukuba ubugcisa be-pre-Columbian ngaphambi nangemva kweli xesha bekungekho ngaphantsi kwelo xesha leklasi.
Izigaba zangaphambi kwe-Columbian zacwangciswa ngokukodwa ngexesha lemvelaphi, kodwa ngexesha leklasikhi, ukwakhiwa kwemfundo kunye nefuthe elilinganayo laqala, naphakathi kweendawo ezimbini eziphambili zempucuko: iMesoamerica kunye neAndes. Ukwenzeka kwezinto ngendlela efanayo ekufanekiseni iintsomi ezithile, amagama afanayo namasiko athile abonisa ukuba, ngokukodwa emva kwexesha lakudala, unxibelelwano phakathi kwempucuko eyahlukahlukeneyo lwalungelona xesha lithile.
Isakhelo sejografi
Ubume bejografi bumiselwe kwisiseko samakholoni aseSpain kwilizwekazi, kuba igama elithi "pre-Columbian" libonisa umqondiso ovela kwindawo ye-Hispano-American. Ngenxa yoko, ezinye iinkcubeko zaseMelika ezivela kwimimandla engeyiyo eyeSpanishi zibizwa ngokwahlukileyo. Phakathi kwale mimandla yeenkcubeko zangaphambi kwe-Columbian, kukho ishumi elinesihlanu ngokukodwa eliphuma phambili kumlinganiselo omkhulu wokulandela umkhondo kunye nezixhobo ezibekwe ngokukodwa kwiindawo ezimbini: iMesoamerica kunye neAndes.
EMesoamerica, equka ummandla wangoku waseMexico kunye noMbindi Melika, impucuko ilandelwa yi-Olmecs kunye nesiseko sesinye sezixeko zokuqala zaseMelika: iTeotihuacán. Ezinye iinkcubeko ziya kuba ngamaMayans, amaMixtec, amaToltec, kwaye ekugqibeleni ama-Aztec.
Kwiintaba zeAndes, eziquka imimandla yawo onke amazwe awela udederhu lweentaba zaseVenezuela naseColombia, emantla, ukuya kwimimandla esemantla eChile naseArgentina, emazantsi, iiChibchas zigqame njengendawo yokuhlangana phakathi kweMesoamerica neArgentina. iiAndes, iSan Agustín, iColima, iSinú, iChavín, iNazca neInca.
IMesoamerica
Abembi bezinto zakudala, i-anthropologists kunye nababhali-mbali bachaza iMesoamerica njengendawo enkulu yenkcubeko, yembali kunye neyomhlaba malunga nesigidi esinye se-km2, kumda weSinaloa River kumantla-ntshona eMexico kunxweme lweGulf of Lerma kunye neSoto de la Marina nakumazantsi kunye nomlambo i-Ulúa. eHonduras nasePuntarenas eCosta Rica.
I-Mexico yimbindi yayo, apho iinkcubeko zemimandla emithathu ebalulekileyo yayisekelwe kwimbono yembali kunye nezobugcisa: iNtlambo yaseMexico embindini, i-Valley of Oaxaca kumazantsi-mpuma angaphambili, kunye neGulf Coast empuma. Ngaphandle kokuhlelwa ngokwahlukeneyo kolandelelwano lwamaxesha, imbali yalo mmandla yahlulahlulwe ngokubanzi yangamaxesha amahlanu aphambili.
Olmec
Ubugcisa be-Olmec bubhekiselele kumazwi obugcisa agciniweyo enkcubeko ye-Olmec eyaphuhliswa ngexesha le-Middle Preclassics e-Mesoamerica (yachuma phakathi kwe-1200 BC kunye ne-500 BC) kwaye ithathwa njengeyokuqala kwimpucuko enkulu yaloo mmandla.
Nangona ii-Olmecs ngokukhethekileyo zazihlala kwindawo esemantla ye-Isthmus ye-Tehuantepec, iindawo eziphambili ze-archaeological ziseSan Lorenzo, La Venta kunye neTres Zapotes, kunye naseVillahermosa naseTabasco, impembelelo yabo yasasazeka kwimimandla emininzi yaseMesoamerican kunye nemiba emininzi eqhelekileyo yenkcubeko yaqala. .ezi nkcubeko.
Ngabo, njengenkcubeko yeentaba kunye nokubonakaliswa (njengephiramidi ye-conical yaseLa Venta), inkcubeko yenyoka eneentsiba kunye nonkulunkulu we-jaguar, umdlalo webhola okanye isimboli. yenkolo jade Inkcubeko Olmec, owayila ukubhala, usebenzisa pictograms kunye ideograms, kunye nekhalenda, ekuqaleni ichongiwe isimbo zobugcisa kwaye uhlala uphawu yayo.
Kwakuyireferensi kunye nelifa kuzo zonke iinkcubeko ezilandelayo kwi-Central America: i-Toltec, i-Zapotecs kunye nokunye kunye nama-Aztec: ukubhalwa kwe-Mayan ngumzekelo kunye neengcambu zawo kwinkqubo yokuqala ye-glyphic eyaphuhliswa yi-Olmecs.
Ukubonakaliswa kwakhe kobugcisa kubonakaliswa kubuchule obukhulu bobugcisa bokukrola kunye nokukrola, nto leyo kwabaninzi ayinakuthelekiswa nayo nayiphi na impucuko yangaphambi kwe-Columbian.
Uninzi lobugcisa be-Olmec buyinto yendalo, kodwa ikwasebenzisa i-iconography etyebileyo, ibonisa intsingiselo yonqulo, kunye nezinye ezimangalisayo. , izidalwa ezihlala zibhalwe ngestylized anthropomorphic.
Ubugcisa obukhulu okanye obumangalisayo, owenziwe ngodongwe, ilitye (ikakhulukazi i-basalt kunye ne-andesite), kunye nomthi, kunye nobugcisa obuncinci okanye ukuhlobisa, ngokusekelwe kwi-jade jadeite kunye namanye amatye aluhlaza (inyoka), kunye ne-obsidian. – kunye neminye imizobo yomqolomba. Izikhumbuzo zamatye zinokwahlulwa zibe ziindidi ezine:
- iintloko ezinkulu zamatye (ukuya kuthi ga kwi-3 m ubude kunye ne-10 t ubunzima), umzekelo wemifanekiso eqingqiweyo eqingqiweyo eqingqwe kwi-basalt esuka kwiikwari ezikude, eyona misebenzi imele kakhulu yobugcisa be-Olmec, kubandakanywa imizekelo ye-17 ifunyenwe kwiindawo ezahlukeneyo kwindawo engundoqo ye-Olmec. . Babonakala ngokubonakala kwe-Negroid, ngamehlo akhukhumeleyo, imilebe egcweleyo kunye nempumlo ebanzi, kunye nesigcina-ntloko esiqinileyo, esinokumela oothixo, amaqhawe okanye iinkosi, iintloko zeentsapho okanye ookhokho, kunye nabadlali bebhola. . (Imbonakalo yeeNegroids yakhokelela ekucingeni ukuba yayibubungqina bonxibelelwano oluthile lolwandle kumaxesha amandulo.)
- "Izibingelelo" uxande (mhlawumbi iitrone) [kucatshulwa] njengesibingelelo esidumileyo 4 saseLa Venta, esinomngxuma ngaphambili omele umnyango wehlabathi elingaphantsi komhlaba, apho kuvela umlinganiswa wasentsomini ephethe intambo ejikeleze isibingelelo njengomda.
- Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo kwimiqadi engqukuva kunye nokuzimela, njenge "Amawele" ka-El Azuzul, isikhumbuzo sikaSan Martín Pajapan 1 okanye iNkosi yaseLas Limas, umsebenzi wenyoka wendoda ehleli phantsi enejaguar ezingalweni zayo, i-monument rhoqo kwi-Olmec art.
- Stelae, yaziswa emva kwexesha kuneentloko ezinkulu, izibingelelo okanye imifanekiso eqingqiweyo ekhululekileyo. Ekuqaleni, babeyimbonakaliso elula yabalinganiswa, njengeSikhumbuzo se-19 okanye iStela 1 saseLa Venta, kodwa kamva beza ukumela iziganeko zembali, ngokukodwa izenzo ezigunyazisa abalawuli. Lo mkhwa kuthiwa uphelile kwizikhumbuzo ze-post-Olmec ezifana neLa Mojarra Stela 1, edibanisa imifanekiso yabalawuli abaneeglyphs kunye neentsuku zekhalenda kunye nokubala okude.
Olunye uhlobo oluncinci lwe-contraption yimizobo emile okwemaski yelitye le-jade eliqinileyo. IJade yayiyinto exabiseke kakhulu kwaye yayiza kusetyenziswa ngabalawuli njengophawu lwenqanaba. Sele ngo 1500 a. C., abakroli bokuqala be-Olmec babelawula imo yomntu, njengoko kungqinwa yimifanekiso eqingqiweyo eyenziwe ngomthi efunyenwe kwimimandla engumgxobhozo yase-El Manatí.
Abagcini kunye nabaphandi babhekisa kwiimaski zobuso "zesitayile se-Olmec": iintloko zabantu zikhulu kakhulu xa kuthelekiswa nomzimba womlinganiswa, indibaniselwano yamehlo anzulu, iimpumlo ezisicaba, kunye nomlomo obanzi, othe tyaba kancinci, ongekho simetric.
Ngomlomo ophezulu ongqindilili (umlebe we-Olmec, oye wadibaniswa nokumila komlomo we-jaguar) kunye ne-chin encinci, ngamanye amaxesha kunye ne-cleft entloko, kodwa, ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, akukho mzekelo ufunyenwe kwi-archaeologically elawulwa yi-Olmec. umxholo.
Baye bafunyanwa kwiindawo zezinye iinkcubeko, kuquka enye ibekwe ngabom kwindawo yomthendeleko yaseTenochtitlán (eMexico). Imaski kusenokwenzeka ukuba yayimalunga nama-2000 eminyaka ubudala xa ama-Aztec ayingcwaba, ebonisa ukuba ezi maski zazixatyiswe kwaye zaqokelelwa, kufana nezinto zakudala zaseRoma eYurophu.
Njengoko ubugcisa be-Olmec babunxulunyaniswa kakhulu nenkolo yabo, eyayibalaselisa iijaguar (wayekholelwa ukuba kwakude kudala ugqatso "lwamadoda ejaguar" lwaluza kwakheka phakathi komanyano lwejaguar kunye nomfazi) "isitayela se-Olmec" sidibanisa. iimpawu zobuso bomntu kunye neejaguar.
Uthotho lwemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yodongwe kunye nelitye, eyaziwa ngokuba yi-Olmec miniatures, ikwaphuphuma kwiindawo zakudala kulo lonke ixesha lokuFumana, kwaye phakathi kwabo, okubizwa ngokuba bubuso bomntwana, imifanekiso eqingqiweyo emhlophe yeceramic enobuso babantwana, enentloko enkulu, ialmond. -amehlo amile, imilebe epheleleyo, i-helmet kunye nomzimba owenziwe ngamapere.
I-Kunz axes (ekwabizwa ngokuba yi "votive axes"), imifanekiso eqingqiweyo emele "i-jaguar weremen" kwaye isetyenziswa ngendlela ecebisekayo kwizithethe, nayo inokucatshulwa. Kwiimeko ezininzi, intloko isiqingatha somthamo opheleleyo womfanekiso. Onke amagxa eKunz anempumlo ecaba kunye nomlomo ovulekileyo.
Igama elithi "Kunz" livela kuGeorge Frederick Kunz, i-American mineralogist echaza umzobo kwi-1890. Ezinye i-jades zempawu zibizwa ngokuba yi "Olmec spoons". Imiboniso yobugcisa inzima kakhulu kwaye kusekho izinto ezininzi eziphantsi kophando. I-Ceramics ikwaphuhlisiwe kwi-Isthmus ye-Tehuantepec indawo, ifikelela kwiindawo eziphakamileyo zobugcisa eBarra, eLocona, nase-Ocós.
Ezona ziqwenga zibalulekileyo ze-Olmec ziye zafunyanwa kwiindawo ezigrunjiweyo zaza zatshintshelwa kwiimyuziyam, ezona ngqokelela zingcono yiXalapa Museum of Anthropology kunye neLa Venta Park Museum, kunye nemizekelo ebalaseleyo nakwiMyuziyam yeSizwe yeAnthropology kwikomkhulu laseMexico.
Teotihuacán
Inkcubeko yaseTeotihuacán iqhelisela ubugcisa bokunqula oothixo kunye nendalo, injongo yayo yodwa kukumela ubungangamsha nobubi bomzabalazo phakathi koothixo abahlukahlukeneyo.
Akanqweneli kubuhle kodwa ekufezekiseni uthumo lwenkolo kunye nombono wendalo yonke wobomi. I-Teotihuacanos yahlula kakhulu ngomsebenzi wabo wamatye, zombini inxalenye yezakhiwo kunye nomfanekiso oqingqiweyo, osetyenziselwa ukuqinisa iinkolelo zentsomi kunye nenkolo yesi sixeko.
Uthixo oyintloko omele ubugcisa kwesi sixeko nguTlaloc, unkulunkulu wemvula owayelawula zonke izibonakaliso zendalo.
ITeotihuacán yitempile yesixeko, engenazo iindonga. I-avenue enkulu, ebizwa ngokuthi "Calle de los Muertos" ngama-Aztec, idibanisa iitempile ezininzi, ezifana ne-Quetzalcóatl, unkulunkulu wenyoka, kunye nezinye izakhiwo, ezifana nePiramidi yeLanga kunye nePiramidi yeNyanga.
Umsebenzi omninzi wemaski, ochazwa bubuso obubanzi kunye nentsingiselo ebhekiselele kumacala amabini kunye nokusetyenziswa kwejade kunye namatye kule mibonakaliso yobugcisa imangalisayo.
IiMeya
AmaMaya ayemi kumzantsi-mpuma weMexico, ingakumbi usingasiqithi weYucatan, kwakunye nommandla omkhulu waseGuatemala, eBelize, eHonduras nase-El Salvador. Bakha inani elikhulu lezixeko ezibe nozuko lwazo kangangeenkulungwane eziliqela, ezinjengeKaminaljuyú, Tikal, Calakmul, Palenque, Copán neChichén Itzá.
Ubugcisa be-Mayan bugxile kwi-elite yamaMaya kunye nokunqulwa kookumkani abangcwele, kwaye isebenzisana neentlobo ezininzi zemixholo kunaso nasiphi na esinye isiko lobugcisa eMelika. Inezimbo ezininzi zengingqi kwaye yohlukile kwiMelika yakudala ngesandi esinesicatshulwa esibalisayo.
Impucuko yamaMaya ishiye ngasemva ilifa elikhulu lezakhiwo ezibandakanya iibhotwe, ii-acropolises, iitempile, iiphiramidi, kunye neendawo zokujonga ngeenkwenkwezi. Uyilo lweMayan lubandakanye ukubhala kweglyphic kunye neendlela ezahlukeneyo zobugcisa, njengokukrola amatye.
Ilitye lelitye lixhaphakile kwiindawo zedolophu, ezihlala zinxulunyaniswa namatye asezantsi ajikelezayo abizwa ngokuba "zialtare". Umfanekiso oqingqiweyo wamatye wathatha ezinye iifom, ezifana neepaneli ze-limestone yokunceda iPalenque kunye nePiedras Negras kunye nezinyuko zamatye ezihonjiswe ngemifanekiso eqingqiweyo kwiindawo ezifana neYaxchilán, iDos Pilas, iCopán, phakathi kwezinye.
Imifanekiso eqingqiweyo emikhulu yamaMaya yayiyi-facades ye-stucco eyinkimbinkimbi eyathi, emva kokwenziwa imodeli, yapeyintwa ngemibala eqaqambileyo kwaye yabekwa kwiifacade zetempile.
Babeyixabisile ijeyidi eluhlaza namanye amatye aluhlaza, bezinxulumanisa nothixo welanga uK'inich Ajau. Bakrola izinto zakudala ezisusela kwiiperile ezintle neetesserae ukuya kwiintloko eziqingqiweyo ezinobunzima obuyi-4,42 kg.25 Izidwangube zamaMaya zaziqhelisela uhlengahlengiso lwamazinyo, ezinye iinkosi zinxibe izihobe zejeyidi emazinyweni azo.
Iimaski zemosaic engcwabeni zisenokwenziwa nangejeyidi. Baphinde basebenze kumaplanga, ilitye lenyengane, ilitye lenyengane kunye ne-obsidian kwaye baqaqambise ilitye lelitye elinqabileyo. Kwakhona bakrola amathambo kunye namaqokobhe abantu kunye nezilwanyana zohlobo lweSpondylus. Kamva benza izinto ezincinci zegolide, isilivere, nobhedu besebenzisa ubuchule bokubethelela kunye nokulahleka kwewax.
AmaMayya ayenesithethe eside sokupeyinta eludongeni, kunye neepateni zepolychrome ezipeyintwe kwiindonga ezityatyekiweyo ezigudileyo. Nangona uninzi lwazo alusekho, kukho imizobo emininzi eseleyo, epeyintwe ngekhrimu, ebomvu, namnyama, kumangcwaba exesha lamandulo e-El Caracol, eRío Azul, naseTikal, kunye nothotho lwemizobo emikhulu yeLate Classic. Bonampak.
Iingqayi zomdongwe zaseMayan zenziwe kusetyenziswa ubuchule bokuguqulwa kwe-roller. Lalingakhanyiswa, nangona lalidla ngokuba nesiphetho esihle nelitshisiweyo. Yayipeyintwe ngebhafu yodongwe exutywe neeminerali kunye nodongwe olunemibala.
I-Ik-style polychrome ceramic corpus, equka iipleyiti ezipeyintwe kakuhle kunye nezikhongozeli ezisilinda, zazalwa ekupheleni kwexesha lakudala eMotul de San José. Ibandakanya inani leempawu, ezinjengeeglyphs ezipeyintwe ngombala opinki ophaphathekileyo okanye obomvu, kunye nemiboniso yabadanisi abamaski.
Olona phawu lubalaseleyo lubonisa ngokwenyani imixholo njengoko ibonakala kubomi benene. Imixholo yeevazi yayiquka ubomi benkundla kwingingqi yasePetén ngenkulungwane yesi-XNUMX AD. I-CC, efana neentlanganiso zozakuzo, iminyhadala, ukuphalazwa kwegazi, imiboniso yamagorha, nokubingelelwa kwamabanjwa emfazwe.
Mixtecs
Aba bantu bomthonyama bathatha intlambo ye-Oaxaca malunga ne-1300 AD, besusa amaZapotec asuka eMonte Albán nakwezinye izixeko ezibalulekileyo, besenza iinkosi ezizimeleyo. Umkhondo wokuhlala kweLa Mixteca ubuyela emva ubuncinci iminyaka eyi-6,000 ifunyenwe.
Ngohlaselo lwaseMonte Albán kunye nokusekwa kwesixeko saseMitla njengekomkhulu layo, inkcubeko yeMixtec yafikelela kwixesha layo lobuhle obukhulu. Ukwehla kwayo kwaqala ngokwandiswa kwe-Mexica malunga ne-1458, de kwaba sekupheleni koloyiso lwaseSpain lwe-Mixtec Empire malunga ne-1521.
I-Mixtecs iye yavelisa uhlobo lokubhalwa kwemifanekiso edibanisa izinto ezivela kwi-Monte Albán kunye neTeotihuacán, kwaye uncwadi lwabo lugcinwe kwiikhowudi ezahlukeneyo ezifana neNuttal kunye neSelden. U-Huehueteotl, omnye wezithixo eziphambili ze-Mixtecs, uhlala eboniswa kwii-urns ze-ceramic ezinefuthe le-Zapotec.
Nangona kunjalo, unkulunkulu wakhe wokufundisa yayinguDzahui, owabelana ngeempawu kunye neTlaloc. I-Mixtec yayingabakhandi begolide kunye nababumbi, kwaye bathumela izinto zodidi kwezinye iindawo zaseMesoamerica, ezifana neeramics ze-polychrome, ubugcisa bentsiba, kunye neenkozo zegolide, ezidibaniswe ne-turquoise, njengakwimeko ye-Yanhuitlán shield.
Elinye lawona maqhekeza aziwa kakhulu sisigqubuthelo segolide sothixo uXipe Tótec, umxhasi wengcwele yombutho weengcibi zegolide. Enye ipendant yenziwe ngamacwecwe amane adityaniswe omnye komnye ngamakhonkco kwaye athweswe isithsaba ngeentsimbi ezine ezinde.
Ipleyiti ephezulu ibonisa ibala lokudlala esiko kunye nezithixo ezimbini ezimele ubumbano olungunaphakade kunye nokakayi embindini, okwesibini yidiski yelanga, eyesithathu ifuzisela iNyanga kunye neyesine ifuzisela uMhlaba.
Kwabaninzi abembi bezinto zakudala, amaqhekeza avela eMonte Albán yeyona nto iphakamileyo yobugcisa, ubuchwephesha kunye nobuhle bokubonakaliswa kwelizwe langaphambi kweSpanishi. Ubuchule kunye nokugqibelela kweMixtec, owadala amatye anqabileyo amalunga namakhulu amahlanu abizwa ngokuba yingcwaba n. º isi-7 zidityaniswe nengqiqo kunye nokusebenza.
Umzekelo wale misipha ye-pectoral, enokuthi isetyenziswe ngokuzimeleyo okanye idibaniswe ukwenza ikhola enkulu, imisipha yesifuba, engumfanekiso onxibe imaski yomlomo ngamazinyo anqabileyo kunye nesigqoko, eyenziwa entwasahlobo eyinkimbinkimbi.
Esifubeni kukho umbhalo obhekiselele ekulungisweni kwekhalenda kunye ne-cosmology yomzuzu wembali apho iziqwenga zenziwa khona.
eMexico
Ubugcisa bento ebizwa ngokuba yiMexica bubalasele ngenxa yesikhumbuzo semifanekiso eqingqiweyo yamatye, agqamayo kwidrama yawo kunye nobuhle bantlandlolo.30 IPedra do Sol, iMonolith Tlaltecuhtli, iMonolith Coyolxauhqui kunye nomfanekiso oqingqiweyo wesithixokazi uCoatlicue zijongwa. imisebenzi yobugcisa.. yemifanekiso eqingqiweyo yaseMexico.
Uyilo lwezenkolo lwaseMexica lwaphuhliswa lulandela izikhokelo zesithethe saseMesoamerican, lubonelela njengento entsha ulwakhiwo lweetempile ezingamawele ezinamanqwanqwa aphindwe kabini, njengembonakaliso yendalo emibini yoothixo baseMexica.
Kuyafaneleka ukugqamisa iMeya yeTemplo, eseMéxico-Tenochtitlán, ethathe indawo ye-100 x 80 m kwaye yafikelela kubude be-40 m. Yayinikezelwe kuHuitzilopochtli kunye neTlaloc, oothixo bokufundisa baseTenochcas. Olunye ulwakhiwo oluqhelekileyo lweMexicas yayiyi-tzompantli, isakhiwo apho iinkayi zedini zaziqokelelwa.
Ubugcisa bepeni, olwenziwa ngabathandi, lwalungomnye wabameli kunye nokuzinikela kwezobugcisa be-Aztec. Benza imihlobiso esekelwe kwigolide, amatye anqabileyo kunye neentsiba ezahlukeneyo, ngakumbi i-quetzal.
Ezi mpahla zazisetyenziselwa ukuhombisa imifanekiso eqingqiweyo yoothixo, ukwenza amadini okanye njengemiqondiso yasemkhosini. Iziqwenga ezibalaseleyo zale plumeria zaziyinxalenye yobuncwane bukaHuey Tlatoani.
Umzobo waseMexica wenziwa nguTlacuilo, amagcisa aphethe ukuzoba iikhowudi zaseMexico, imizobo eseludongeni kunye nemifanekiso eqingqiweyo. Iikhowudi zaseMexico zenziwe ngamaqokobhe athandwayo zaza zapeyintwa ngeedayi ezahlukahlukeneyo.
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