Iintaka ezifudukayo zisisiganeko esixhaphakileyo kwindalo kwaye ngenxa yokukwazi kwazo ukubhabha ziyakwazi ukubhabha imigama emide ngokumisa okumbalwa okanye zingamisi ukuze zifake amafutha kwaye zizalise amandla. Impembelelo ebakhokelela ekubeni bazibandakanye kolu hambo luhle kukuphepha ubusika, ukukhangela ukutya okanye impumelelo yeqabane kunye nokuzala emva koko.
iintaka ezifudukayo
Kubizwa ngokuba kukufuduka kweentaka kwinkqubo equka iihambo ezenziwa ziintlobo ezininzi zeentaka kwixesha lonyaka ngalinye kwaye rhoqo. Ukongeza kokufuduka, iintaka zenza ezinye iintshukumo zokusabela kutshintsho kubukho bokutya, indawo yokuhlala okanye imozulu, ehlala ingaqhelekanga okanye kwicala elinye kwaye ibizwa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo ezinje nge-nomadism, ukuhlasela, ukusasazwa okanye ukungena. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iintaka ezingafudukiyo zibizwa ngokuba ziintaka ezihlala kuzo.
Iipateni ngokubanzi
Ukufuduka kugqitywa ngokwenzeka kwayo ngexesha elinye ngonyaka. Iintaka ezininzi ezihlala emhlabeni zifuduka imigama emide. Ezona pateni zixhaphakileyo zibandakanya ukufudukela emantla ukuzalela ehlotyeni kwiindawo ezipholileyo okanye ezikwi-arctic kunye nokubuyela kwimimandla yasebusika kwimimandla efudumeleyo esemazantsi.
Eyona meko iphambili ethandwa kakhulu kukufuduka ngamandla. Iintsuku ezinde zasehlotyeni emantla zinika amathuba angakumbi okuzala kweentaka ukuze zondle amantshontsho azo. Ukolulwa kweeyure zasemini kwenza ukuba iintaka eziziintsuku zikwazi ukuzala amaxhaka amakhulu kunezo zeentlobo ezinxulumeneyo ezingafudukiyo ezihlala kwiindawo ezishushu unyaka wonke. Kanye njengokuba iintsuku ziba mfutshane ekwindla, ezi ntaka zibuyela kwimimandla efudumeleyo apho ukutya okukhoyo kutshintsha kancinci ngexesha lonyaka.
Ezi zibonelelo zodlula iingozi zoxinzelelo oluphezulu, iindleko zamandla, kunye nezinye iingozi zokufuduka. I-Predation ingaba phezulu ngexesha lokufuduka. I-Eleonora's falcon (Falco eleonorae), ezalela kwiziqithi zeMeditera, inexesha elilibaziseke kakhulu lokuzala, elidityaniswa nendlela yasekwindla yeentaka ezifudukela emazantsi, ezondla ngazo amantshontsho ayo. Iqhinga elifanayo lamkelwa lilulwane iNyctalus lasiopterus, elikutya kwalo kuziintaka ezifudukayo.
Uxinzelelo olukhulu lweentaka ezifuduka kwindawo zokumisa okwexeshana nazo zizenza zityekele kwizifunxi-gazi kunye nentsholongwane, nto leyo efuna impendulo ephezulu yokuzikhusela komzimba. Phakathi kohlobo oluthile, asingabo bonke abemi ekufuneka bafuduke, okubizwa ngokuba kukufuduka kwenxalenye. Ukufudukela kwelinye ilizwe kuxhaphake kakhulu kumazwekazi asemazantsi; e-Australia, i-44% ye-non-passerine kunye ne-32% yeentlobo zeentaka ze-passerine zifuduka ngokuyinxenye.
Kwiintlobo ezithile, inani labemi bommandla ophakamileyo lihlala lifuduka kwaye liya kuhlala lihlala kwiindawo ezisezantsi kunezo apho abanye abantu beentlobo ezifanayo bahlala khona kwaye, ngenxa yoko, sele behlala kwindawo efanelekileyo yokuhlala ebusika, kuba oku kubizwa ngokuba " ukufuduka kwesele".
Kuluntu, kusenokubakho ipatheni eyahlukileyo yolandelelwano lwamaxesha kunye nokufuduka ngokusekwe kwiminyaka yobudala kunye namaqela esini. Kuphela ngabasetyhini bakaFringilla coelebs (Chaffinches) baseScandinavia abafudukayo kwaye amadoda ahlala engabahlali (oku kubangele igama elithi coelebs, elithetha ukuba ngatshatanga). Uninzi lokufuduka luqala ngokunyuka kweentaka kwindawo enkulu. Kwiimeko ezithile, ukufuduka kubandakanya iibhanti zokufuduka ezimxinwa ezimiselwe njengeendlela zemveli ezibizwa ngokuba ziindlela zokubhabha ezifudukayo.
Ezi ngokuqhelekileyo zilandela udederhu lweentaba kunye nonxweme, kwaye zinokuthatha ithuba lempepho kunye nezinye iipateni zomoya okanye zidlule imiqobo yejografi efana namaqula amakhulu amanzi avulekileyo. Iindlela ezikhethekileyo zinokucwangciswa kwimizila yazo yemfuza okanye zifundwe ngokwamanqanaba ahlukeneyo. Iindlela ezihamba kwicala elinye kunye nokubuya zihlala zahluka.
Uninzi lweentaka ezinkulu zibhabha ziyimihlambi. Olu hlobo lokubhabha lubanceda banciphise ukusetyenziswa kwamandla. Uninzi lwazo lubhabha ngendlela ye-V kunye nokugcinwa kwamandla omntu ngamnye kuye kwaqikelelwa kwi-12-20%. iikhilomitha ngeyure ngokukhawuleza kwimihlambi kunaxa bekwenza oko bebodwa.
Umphakamo eziya kuwo iintaka xa zifuduka uyaguquguquka. Uhambo oluya eMount Everest luvelise amathambo eAnas acuta (idada elinomsila ongasentla) kunye neLimosa limosa (i-woodpecker enomsila omnyama) kumgama ozimitha ezingama-5.000 ngaphezu kweKhumbu Glacier. I-Geese Anser indicus ibonwe ibhabha encochoyini ye-Himalaya ngaphezulu kwe-8.000 yeemitha, naxa iindawo ezisezantsi eziziimitha ezingama-3.000 zazikufuphi.
Iintaka zaselwandle zibhabhela phantsi phezu kwamanzi kodwa zifumana ubude ngokuwela emhlabeni kwaye ukuziphatha okuphambeneyo kunokubonwa kwiintaka zasemhlabeni.Noko kunjalo, ukufuduka kweentaka ezininzi kwenzeka kwi-150 yeemitha kuluhlu lwe-600 yeemitha. Iirekhodi zokubethelwa kweentaka e-United States zifumene ukuba uninzi logwayimbo lwenzeka kwindawo yokuphakama engaphantsi kweemitha ezingama-600 kwaye phantse akukho nanye ngaphezu kwe-1.800 yeemitha.
Uninzi lweendidi zoonombombiya zifuduka rhoqo ngokuqubha. Ezi ndlela zinokuhamba ngaphezu kweekhilomitha ezili-1.000. I-Cock of the Rockies (i-Dendragapus obscurus) yenza i-altitude migrations kakhulu ngokuhamba. Ii-Emus zaseOstreliya zibonwe zihamba imigama emide ngamaxesha embalela.
Umbono wembali
Uqwalaselo lokuqala olubhalise ukufuduka kweentaka luvela malunga neminyaka eyi-3.000 eyadlulayo, ekubhekiselwa kuyo nguHesiod, uHomer, uHerodotus, uAristotle nabanye. IBhayibhile ikwakhankanya ukufuduka, njengakwiNcwadi kaYobhi ( 39:26 ), apho lo mbuzo ubuzwayo: “Kungenxa yetalente yakho na, le nto ukhetshe uzigubungele ngeentsiba, lolule amaphiko alo ngasemzantsi? Umprofeti uYeremiya (8:7) wanikela le ngxelo: “Nengwamza ezulwini iyawazi amaxesha ayo amisiweyo; ihobe, nenkonjane nendwe zilazi ixesha lokufuduka«.
UAristotle uthi ezi crane zisuka kumathafa amaSkitiya ziye kwimigxobhozo esekupheleni komlambo umNayile.” UPliny Omdala kwincwadi yakhe ethi “Naturalis Historia” ukuphinda oko kwabonwa nguAristotle. Kwelinye icala, uAristotle wema ngelithi iinkonjane nezinye iintaka zazilala ebusika. Esi sigwebo sagcinwa kwade kwangowe-1878, umhla apho u-Elliott Coues enze uluhlu lwemisebenzi eyi-182 ubuncinane malunga nokufihlwa kweenkonjane.
Kwakusekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-XNUMX xa ukufuduka kwamkelwa njengonobangela wokunyamalala kweentaka ebusika kwimozulu esemantla. Ukufunyanwa kweengwamza ezimhlophe eJamani, ezonzakala ngeentolo zaseAfrika, zanika umkhondo malunga nokufuduka. Omnye weyona mizekelo midala utolo yayibekwe kufutshane nelali yaseJamani iKlütz kwilizwana laseMecklenburg-Vorpommern.
Ukufuduka kuMgama omde
Umfanekiso oqhelekileyo wokufuduka wenziwa ziintaka zasemhlabeni ezisemantla ezifana neenkonjane kunye neentaka ezidla inyama ezenza uhambo olude ukuya kwiindawo ezishushu. Uninzi lwamadada, amarhanisi, kunye namadada azalela emantla nawo angabantu abafudukela imigama emide, ukanti kuya kufuneka baye emazantsi kangangoko kuyimfuneko ukunqanda amanzi ukuba aqalise ukuba ngumkhenkce kwiindawo abazalela kuzo kwi-arctic.
Uninzi lweentlobo ze-Holarctic ze-Anatidae zihlala kumantla e-hemisphere, kodwa kwiintlanga ezinemozulu epholileyo. Njengomzekelo, i-Anser brachyrhynchus (irhanisi elibiza imali emfutshane) yenza imfuduko yayo isuka e-Iceland isiya eGreat Britain nakumazwe akufuphi. Iindlela zokufuduka kunye neendawo zasebusika ziqhelekile kwaye zifundwa ngabancinci ngokufuduka kwabo okokuqala ecaleni kwabazali babo. Amanye amadada, afana ne-Anas querquedula (i-carretota teal), ahamba ngokupheleleyo okanye ngokuyinxenye kwiindawo ezishushu.
Ukuqwalaselwa okufanayo malunga nezithintelo kunye nokuphambuka okusebenzayo kwiintaka zomhlaba ezifudukayo kumgama omde, zifana neentaka zasemanzini, kodwa ngokuchaseneyo: ummandla omkhulu womhlaba ngaphandle kwe-aquariums ebonelela ngendawo yokutya ngumqobo kwintaka yamanzi. Ulwandle oluvulekileyo lukwangumqobo wentaka ekutya kwayo kufumaneka kumanzi onxweme.
Iindlela zenziwa ukuze kuthintelwe le miqobo: umzekelo, iBranta bernicla (irhanisi elibambeneyo) isuka kwiPeninsula yaseTaimir ukuya kuLwandle lwaseWadden (eHolland, eJamani naseDenmark) ihamba ecaleni koLwandle oluMhlophe noLwandle lweBaltic kwindlela yokuwela ulwandle endaweni yokuwela uLwandle lweArctic ngokuthe ngqo. nakumantla eScandinavia.
Imeko efanayo yenzeka kwiintaka eziwela emanzini (Charadriiformes). Iintlobo ezininzi ezifana neCalidris alpina (isandpiper eqhelekileyo) kunye neCalidris mauri (isandpiper yaseAlaska) zenza uhambo olude ukusuka kwiindawo ezizalela kuzo eArctic ukuya kwiindawo ezishushu kwihemisphere efanayo, kodwa ezinye ezifana neCalidris pusilla (semipalmated sandpiper) zihamba imigama emide ukuya elwandle. iindawo ezishushu.
Njengamadada amakhulu, awomeleleyo namarhanisi (Anseriformes), iintaka ezibhabhayo zizibhabhathane ezingaqhelekanga. Oku kuthetha ukuba iintaka ezihlala ebusika kwiindawo ezipholileyo ziyakwazi ukwenza intshukumo emfutshane eyongezelelweyo xa imeko yemozulu embi kakhulu.
Kwezinye iiwaders, imfuduko eyimpumelelo iya kuxhomekeka kubukho bemithombo yokutya ebalulekileyo kwiindawo zokumisa ecaleni kwendlela yonke yebhabhathane. Oku kunika abafuduki ithuba lokugalela amafutha kumlenze olandelayo wohambo. Eminye imizekelo yeendawo ezibalulekileyo zokuvalelwa kwabantu abavela kwamanye amazwe yiBay of Fundy kunye neDelaware Bay.
Eminye imizekelo yeLimosa lapponica (iSnipe okanye iBar-tailed Woodpecker) ibambe irekhodi leyona nqwelo-moya inde ingayekiyo eyakha yarekhodwa kwintaka efudukayo, ehamba umgama oziikhilomitha ezili-11.000 ukusuka e-Alaska ukuya kwixesha labo lokungazaleli eNew Zealand. ubunzima bomzimba wakho ngamafutha obugcinileyo ukunika amandla olu hambo lungayekiyo.
Ukufuduka kweentaka zolwandle kuyafana ngepatheni naleyo yeCharadriiformes kunye ne-Anseriformes. Ezinye, njengeCepphus grylle (i-white-winged guillemot) kunye nengabangaba ezithile, zihleli kakhulu, ngelixa ezinye, njengeetern ezininzi kunye neerazorbill ezizalela kwiindawo ezinemozulu epholileyo kumntla wehemisphere, zihamba imigama eyahlukahlukeneyo ukuya emazantsi.
Eyona ndlela inde yokufuduka kuzo zonke iintaka yenziwa yi Sterna paradisaea (Arctic tern) kwaye ihlala emini ixesha elide kunayo nayiphi na enye intaka, isuka kwindawo ezizalela kuyo eArctic ukuya kwingingqi yeAntarctic kulo lonke ixesha lonyaka. I<em>arctic tern, eyanikwa umsesane wokuzazisa njengenkuku kwiZiqithi zaseFarne, ezikude nonxweme olusempuma lwaseBritani, yafika eMelbourne, eOstreliya, kwiinyanga nje ezintathu emva kokuba isabile; uhambo lolwandle lweekhilomitha ezingama-22.000.
Ezinye iintaka zaselwandle, njengeOceanites oceanicus (Wilson’s pamperito) kunye nePuffinus gravis (Capirotada shearwater), zizalela kumazantsi eikhweyitha yaye zifudukela emantla ebusika eAustral. Iintaka zaselwandle zinenzuzo eyongezelelweyo yokukwazi ukufumana ukutya ngexesha lonke lokufuduka kwazo phezu kwamanzi avulekileyo.
Iintlobo ezininzi zepelagic, ikakhulu iiProcellariiformes, zizibhadubhadu ezinkulu, kwaye iialbatross zolwandle ezisemazantsi zinokubhabha kwihlabathi jikelele kwixesha elingazaliyo. Iintaka zeProcellariiformes zithe saa kwiindawo ezininzi zolwandle oluvulekileyo, kodwa ziqokelelana xa kukho ukutya.
Uninzi lukwafunyanwa phakathi kwabafuduki abahamba imigama emide; I-Puffinus griseus (i-shearwater okanye i-pamperito emnyama) ehlala kwiZiqithi ze-Malvinas ibhabha iikhilomitha ezingama-14.000 phakathi kwendawo yokuzalela kunye noLwandlekazi lwase-Atlantiki olukuMntla eNorway. Enye iPuffinus puffinus (iManx Shearwater) yenza olu hambo lufanayo lubuyela umva. Ekubeni iintaka eziphila ixesha elide, zinokuqokelelana imigama emide ehanjiweyo, ekuthe ngokomzekelo omnye kuqikelelwa kumgama oziikhilomitha ezizizigidi ezisi-8 kubo bonke ubomi bayo obuqinisekisiweyo obungaphezu kweminyaka engama-50.
Ezinye iintaka ezinkulu ezinamaphiko zixhomekeke kumoya oshushu onyukayo ukuze zikwazi ukutyibilika. Ezi ziquka intaphane yeentaka ezidla inyama njengamaxhalanga, amaxhalanga noongqatyana, kunye neengwamza. Ezi ntaka zifuduka emini.
Kunzima ngeentaka ezifudukayo zala maqela ukuwela amanzi amaninzi, ekubeni imisinga yobushushu ibunjwa emhlabeni kuphela, kwaye ezi ntaka azikwazi ukuqhubeka zibhabha imigama emide. Ngoko ke iMeditera kunye nezinye iilwandle ziyimiqobo ebalulekileyo kwiintaka ezibhabhayo, ezinyanzelwa ukuba ziwele kwezona ndawo zimxinwa.
Ubuninzi beentaka ezinkulu ezitya inyama kunye neengwamza zinqumla kwiindawo ezifana neGibraltar, Falsterbo kunye neBosphorus ngexesha lokufuduka. Ezona ntlobo zixhaphakileyo, ezifana nePernis apivorus (Honey Buzzard), zibalelwa kumakhulu amawaka ekwindla. Ezinye izithintelo, ezinje ngodederhu lweentaba, zinokubangela ukuxinana okukhulu, ngakumbi abafuduki abaninzi bemihla ngemihla. Le yinto eyaziwayo kwi-bottleneck yokufuduka ukusuka kuMbindi Melika.
Uninzi lweentaka ezizizo ezinambuzaneni, eziquka iiwarbler, iingcungcu, neeflycatchers, zifuduka imigama emide, ngokuqhelekileyo ebusuku. Baphumla yonke intsasa baze bondle iintsuku ezimbalwa ngaphambi kokuba baqhubeke nokufuduka kwabo. Ezi ntaka zibizwa ngokuba “zisendleleni” kwiindawo ezibonakala kuzo okwexeshana kuhambo olufutshane kulo lonke uhambo lokufuduka.
Ngokufuduka ebusuku, abafuduki basebusuku bayayinciphisa ingozi yezilwanyana ezizingelayo, yaye bayakuphepha ukutshisa ngokugqithisileyo okunokubangelwa ngamandla asetyenziswe ebudeni benqwelo-moya kwimigama emide ngolo hlobo. Oku kukwabenza bakwazi ukutya emini ukubuyisela amandla ebusuku. Ukufuduka ebusuku kuza kwixabiso lokulahleka kokulala. Abafuduki kufuneka babe nakho ukufumana ubuthongo obungonelanga kulo lonke uhambo lwenqwelomoya ukuhlawulela le lahleko.
Ukufuduka kuMgama oMfutshane
Uninzi lwabafuduki abahamba umgama omde kwicandelo langaphambili bacwangciswe ngokufanelekileyo kwiimfuza zabo ukuba basabele kubude bemini obuguquguqukayo. Nangona kunjalo, iintlobo ezininzi zihamba imigama emifutshane, kodwa zikwenza oko kuphela ngenxa yeemeko ezinzima zemozulu.
Ngendlela yokuba abo baye bazala kwiincopho neemori, njengeTichodroma muraria (wallcreeper) neCinclus cinclus (dipper), bangakwazi nokunyuka umphakamo ukuze baphephe iindawo ezisezintabeni ezibandayo. Ezinye iindidi ezifana ne Falco columbarius (merlin) kunye ne Alauda arvensis (skylark) zihamba kancinci, ngaselunxwemeni okanye kwindawo esemazantsi. Iindidi ezinjengeFringilla coelebs (iiChaffinches) azifane zifudukele eBritani, kodwa ziya kufudukela emazantsi okanye eIreland ukuba imozulu ibanda kakhulu.
Abafuduki abahamba umgama omfutshane banemvelaphi emibini yendaleko. Ezo zinezalamane ezifuduka imigama emide kusapho olunye, ezifana nePhylloscopus collybita (Chiffchaff), eziziindidi zemveli ezikumazantsi ehemisphere ezithi ngokuthe ngcembe zalunciphisa uhambo lwazo lokubuyela ukuze zihlale kumantla eikhweyitha.
Iintlobo ezingenazo izalamane ezifudukayo kwintsapho yazo, njengaseBombycilla, zihamba kuphela ngokusabela kwixesha lasebusika, kunokwandisa amathuba azo okuzala. Kwiitropiki kukho ukuhluka okuncinci kubude bemini unyaka wonke, kwaye ihlala ishushu ngokwaneleyo ukuze kubekho ukutya okufanelekileyo. Ngaphandle kweentshukumo zamaxesha onyaka eentlobo zasebusika zasemntla wehemisphere, inxalenye enkulu yolu didi ihambisa imigama eguquguqukayo ngokwemvula.
Imimandla emininzi yeleenjiko inamaxesha emvula nawomileyo, iimonsoon zaseIndiya mhlawumbi ngowona mzekelo waziwayo. Umfanekiso wentaka osasazwayo unxulumene nemvula yi-arboreal kingfisher Halcyon senegalensis (i-Senegalese Kingfisher) evela eNtshona Afrika. Kukho iintlobo ezimbalwa, ngokukodwa ii-cuckoos, abafuduki bokwenyani bemigama emide ngaphakathi kweTropiki. Enye imodeli yiCuculus poliocephalus (cuckoo okanye i-lesser cuckoo), ezalela eIndiya kwaye ichithe ixesha lokungazali eAfrika.
Kwiintaba eziphakamileyo, njengeeHimalaya kunye neeAndes, kukwakho nokutshintsha kweentlobo ngeentlobo zonyaka zokuphakama kokuphakama, yaye abanye banokufudukela imigama emide. I-Ficedula subrubra (i-Kashmir flycatcher) kunye ne-Zoothera wardii (i-Ward's thrush), zombini ukusuka kwi-Himalayas ukuya kumazantsi njengeendawo eziphakamileyo zaseSri Lanka.
Iziphazamiso kunye nokusasazwa
Ngamanye amaxesha ukuhlangana okufana nexesha elilungileyo lokuzala elilandelwa kukunqongophala kwemithombo yokutya kunyaka olandelayo kukhokelela kwimpumelelo, apho uninzi lweentlobo zezilwanyana luhamba kude ngaphaya koluhlu lwazo lwesiqhelo. I-Bombycilla garrulus (i-European Waxwing), iCarduelis spinus (iSispon), kunye neLoxia curvirostra (i-Common Crossbill) ziindidi ezibonisa olu tshintsho lungalindelekanga kumanani azo ngonyaka.
Imimandla enemozulu epholileyo yamazwekazi asemazantsi inemimandla ebanzi eyinkqantosi, ngakumbi eOstreliya nasentshona kumazantsi eAfrika, kwaye iinguqu eziqhutywa yimozulu ziyenzeka rhoqo kodwa azisoloko ziqikelelwa. Iiveki ezimbalwa zemvula enkulu kwindawo enye okanye kwenye indawo eyomileyo ekumbindi weOstreliya, umzekelo, ibangela ukukhula kwezityalo kunye nezilwanyana ezingenamqolo, ezitsala iintaka ezisuka kude.
Oku kunokwenzeka kulo naliphi na ixesha lonyaka, yaye, nakuwuphi na ummandla ochaziweyo, kusenokungenzeki kwakhona kangangeminyaka elishumi okanye ngaphezulu, ekubeni kuxhomekeke kwixesha elithi “El Niño” nelithi “La Niña”. Ukufuduka kweentaka sisiganeko esenzeka ngokuyinhloko, nangona kungekhona ngokupheleleyo, ukusuka kuMntla weHemisphere. Kwi-hemisphere esemazantsi, ukufuduka kwamaxesha onyaka kudla ngokubakho kakhulu, kwaye kukho izizathu ezahlukeneyo.
Okokuqala, umhlaba omkhulu okanye iilwandlekazi, ngaphandle kwemiqobo emikhulu, ngokuqhelekileyo azigxininisi ukufuduka ngeendlela ezimxinwa kunye nezicacileyo, kwaye ngoko ke, umntu obukeleyo akakwazi kangako.
Kwelinye icala, ubuncinci kwiintaka ezihlala emhlabeni, iindawo zemozulu zidla ngokuphela kwimigama emide endaweni yokuba zahlukane ngokupheleleyo: oku kuthetha ukuba endaweni yokuthatha uhambo olude kwindawo engafanelekanga ukufikelela kwindawo ethile, iintlobo ezifudukayo zinokuhamba. ngokucotha nangokuzola, bekhangela ukutya njengoko behamba.
Ngaphandle kophononongo olwaneleyo lwamabhanti, akubonakali kwezi meko ukuba iintaka ezicingelwa kummandla othile ngokotshintsho lwamaxesha onyaka enyanisweni zingamalungu awohlukeneyo ohlobo olufanayo oludlulayo ngokuqhubekayo luqhubeka nendlela yalo emantla okanye emazantsi.
Ngokwenene, iintlobo ezininzi zezilwanyana zizala kwiindawo ezinemozulu epholileyo esemazantsi nasebusika ukuya emantla kweleenjiko. E-Afrika, i-Hirundo cucullata (i-Ruffle-headed Barn Swallow), kunye ne-Australia, i-Myiagra cyanoleuca (i-Satin Flycatcher), i-Eurystomus orientalis (i-Roller yedola eluhlaza) kunye ne-Merops ornatus (i-Rainbow Bee-eater), umzekelo, ubusika kude kumntla wabo. uluhlu lokuzala.
IPhysiology kunye noLawulo
Ukulawulwa kokufuduka, ukuzimisela kwabo ngexesha kunye nokuphendula kubo kulawulwa ngokwemfuza kwaye kubonakala ukuba ziimpawu zamandulo ezikhoyo nakwiintlobo ezininzi ezingafudukiyo. Ukukwazi ukuhamba ngokuzimeleyo kunye nokuqhelanisa ngokufuduka sisiganeko esinzima kakhulu esibandakanya zombini iinkqubo ezingapheliyo kunye nokufundisa.
Isiseko sePhysiology
Umgaqo we-physiological wokufuduka uquka iinkqubo ezingapheliyo, eziveliswa yi-stimuli yangaphandle, efunyenwe yinkqubo ye-nervous central (CNS). (Gwinner 1986; Ketterson noNolan 1990; Healy et al. 1996; Birgman 1998).
"Njengabathunywa" benkqubo yi-neuroendocrine kunye neehomoni ze-endocrine ezikhutshelwa nge-hypothalamus-pituitary gland. Isidingo sokufuduka sinomba wezofuzo onamandla: kukho imifuniselo enewagtails emthubi (i-Motacilla alba) apho abantu abahlukeneyo kwiindawo zejografi ezifanayo baneempawu zokufuduka ezingalingani kakhulu (Curry-Lindahl, K. 1958).
Umsebenzi wokufuduka ubangela utshintsho olufanelekileyo kwi-physiology yezilwanyana, apho i-hyperphagia, ukwanda kwe-hematocrit yegazi kunye notshintsho oluthile lokuziphatha olufana ne-gregariousness.
Utshintsho olwenzeka kwiNtaka
Kwinqanaba lokufuduka intaka inyusa umgangatho wayo we-lipid (Blem 1990). Amafutha awona mthombo wamandla obaluleke kakhulu kule nkqubo, agcinwa ngokukodwa kwi-adipose tissue, imisipha kunye nezitho zangaphakathi (uGeorge noBerger 1966). Phakathi kwezona ndawo zifanelekileyo zokugcinwa kwamafutha zi: i-clavicle, i-coracoid, emacaleni, isisu, i-pelvis kunye nommandla we-buttock (King and Farner 1965).
I-fatty acids esetyenzisiweyo ngexesha lokufuduka (i-preponderance ye-unsaturated fatty acids) ayizo ezo zisetyenziswa ngexesha le-nesting stage (i-saturated fatty acids iyanqoba) (Conway et al. 1994). Njengoko kukhankanyiwe ngaphambili, amafutha agcinwa kwimisipha, kodwa kungekhona entliziyweni. Ukugcinwa kwamanqatha kwinqanaba lokufuduka liyaziwa iminyaka emininzi ngama-gourmets akhetha abo bafudukayo ngeli xesha ngenxa yokuba inyama yabo ithambile kwaye ityebile ngamafutha.
Ngokomgama owuhambayo kuyo yonke le nkqubo yokufuduka, le ntaka igcina ubuncwane obungaphezulu okanye obuncinane. Amafutha, ngaphezu kokubonelela amandla kwizihlunu, anegalelo kwi-thermoregulation yentaka kuyo yonke le nkqubo. Ngexesha lokufuduka, intaka iphinda inyuse inkcitho yeprotheyini kunye ne-carbohydrate. Kwinqanaba langaphambi kokufuduka intaka inengxaki ye-hyperphagic process: kubonisiwe ukuba nakwesi sigaba intaka inomthamo omkhulu wokubuyisela oovimba.
Iziseko zeNeural kunye neeHormones eziBandakanywe kwiiNkqubo zokuFuduka
Iqela lamadlala e-endocrine linceda ukuchaza impembelelo yokufuduka. I-pituitary ibonakala kwindawo eveleleyo, emele indima yolawulo lwesithuba somzimba, kunye nangenxa yobuntununtunu kwizinto zokukhanyisa. Ukongeza kwi-pituitary, ukufaneleka kwe-thyroid (ukulawula ukufuduka kwamafutha kwi-thermoregulation) kunye ne-gonads iye yaboniswa (uRowan, W.1939, uthathwe kwiimvavanyo zakhe ukuba uphuhliso lwe-gonadal oluphakathi lwaluyimfuneko eyimfuneko yokufuduka. inkqubo).
- Izinto zokusingqongileyo imeko yentshukumo yokufuduka, echaphazela ngqo amadlala akhankanywe ngaphambili, umzekelo:
- Kwimeko yedlala lengqula, zininzi izehlo zeentaka ezifuduka imigama emide “ziqhutywa” ngamaza abandayo abandayo.
- I-pituitary iphenjelelwa ngokuphandle yiphotoperiod (ixesha elivezwe emini), uhlobo ngalunye luyazala kwaye lufuduke ngokwemida yephotoperiod efanelekileyo. Iimvavanyo ziye zaqhutywa kunye neentaka ezithinjiweyo apho kwakunokwenzeka ukuqinisekiswa ukuba kuphela ngokukhuthazwa kwefotoperiod iintaka zabonisa ukuphazamiseka okujoliswe kwiindawo zabo zokufuduka.
I-Prolactin, i-hormone yokukhula, i-hormone ye-pancreatic, i-hormone ye-pituitary, i-catecholamines, kunye ne-insulin idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekugcinweni kwamafutha, i-muscle hypertrophy, kunye nokwanda kwe-hematocrit (i-Ramenofsky kunye ne-Boswell 1994).
- I-catecholamines, i-hormone yokukhula kunye ne-corticosterone ibandakanyeka kwi-fat displacement (Ramenofsky 1990).
- I-Corticosterone kunye ne-testosterone zibaluleke kakhulu ekufudukeni kweentaka ebusuku (Gwinner 1975).
- I-Melatonin inendima enkulu kwindlela ukufuduka kunye noqhelaniso olulungelelaniswe ngayo (Beldhuis et al. 1988; Schnneider et al. 1994).
Ukuqalisa Ubalo-maxesha
Olona vuselelo lusisiseko lwefiziyoloji lokufuduka kukuguquguquka kobude bemini. Olu tshintsho lunxulunyaniswa nokutshintsha kwehomoni kwiintaka. Ngexesha eliphambi kokufuduka, iintaka ezininzi zibonisa ukwanda komsebenzi okanye "iZugunruhe" (isiJamani: ukuphazamiseka kokufuduka) kunye nokutshintsha kwe-physiological ezifana nokugcinwa kwamafutha.
Ukubonakala kwesi siganeko, nakwiintaka ezithinjiweyo ngaphandle kwempembelelo yendalo (umzekelo, iintsuku ezimfutshane okanye ukunciphisa ubushushu), kunika iimpawu zendima yeenkqubo ze-endogenous rhoqo ngonyaka ekulawuleni ukufuduka kweentaka.
Ezi ntaka zivalelweyo zibonakalisa indlela ezithanda ukubhabha ngayo ehambelana necala eziya ngakulo ukuba bezikhululekile, zide zitshintshe indlela ezikhetha ngayo phantse ngaxeshanye kunye nezilwanyana zasendle eziguqula indlela yazo. Kwiindidi apho i-polygyny kunye ne-dimorphism ephawulwe ngokwesondo ikhona, kukho ukuthambekela kokuba amadoda abuyele kwiindawo zokuzala ngokukhawuleza kunamabhinqa, okubizwa ngokuba yi-protoandry.
Ukuqhelaniswa nokuHamba
Iintaka zikhokelwa zizivamvo ezahlukeneyo. Kwiintlobo ezininzi zokusetyenziswa kwekhampasi yelanga kuye kwamiselwa. Ukusebenzisa ilanga ukufumana indlela kuthetha ukwenza imbuyekezo ngokwahluka kwendawo elikuyo ngokusekelwe kwixesha lemini. Ukuhamba kwakhona kuye kwamiselwa ukuba kusekelwe kumxube wezinye izakhono ezibandakanya indawo yemagnethi, ukusetyenziswa kwamanqaku okubonwayo kunye neendlela zokuvumba.
Iintaka ezifudukela kumgama omde kucingelwa ukuba zinwenwela zisencinci kwaye zinamathele kwiindawo ezinokuzalela kunye neendawo ezikhethwa kuzo zasebusika. Nje ukuba uncamathiselo lwendawo lwenziwe, babonisa ukuthembeka okuphezulu kwindawo, kuba bayindwendwela unyaka nonyaka.
Ukukwazi kweentaka ukuhamba ngokufuduka akukwazi ukuchazwa ngokupheleleyo kwisiseko seprogram engapheliyo, nangona negalelo leempendulo kwi-stimuli yendalo. Ukukwazi ukufuduka ngempumelelo kwimigama emide kunokuqondwa kuphela ukuba umgangatho wokuqonda weentaka ukuze ziqondwe indawo yokuhlala kunye nemephu yengqondo ithathelwe ingqalelo.
Ukujongwa ngesathelayithi kwizidlwengu ezifuduka emini ezifana nePandion haliaetus (Osprey) kunye nePernis apivorus (House-hawk) kufumanise ukuba izifundo zabantu abadala zisebenza ngakumbi ekulungiseni ikhondo kunokuba zikhukuliswe ngumoya. Njengoko iimodeli ezineengqungquthela zonyaka zibonisa, kukho icandelo elinamandla lemfuzo lokufuduka ngokwexesha kunye nokuzimisela kwendlela, kodwa oku kunokutshintshwa yimpembelelo yendalo.
Umzekelo onomdla wokutshintsha kwendlela yokufuduka ebangelwa yimiqobo yezejografi kukuthambekela koMbindi Yurophu uSylvia atricapilla (iiblackcaps) ukufudukela entshona nasebusika eGreat Britain endaweni yokuwela iiAlps. Iintaka ezifudukayo zinokusebenzisa izixhobo ezibini ze-electromagnetic ukufumana indawo eziya kuyo: enye izalwa ngokupheleleyo (magnetoreception) kwaye enye ixhomekeke kumava.
Intaka encinane xa ibhabha iqala ukufuduka ithatha ikhondo elichanekileyo ngokuhambelana ne-geomagnetic field kodwa ayazi ukuba ibhabha kangakanani na. Ikwenza oku ngokusebenzisa "i-double radical mechanism" exhomekeke ekukhanyeni nakwimagnetism apho ukusabela kweekhemikhali, ngakumbi iifotopigments ezibona ukukhanya okude, zichatshazelwa yimagnethi.
Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba nangona oku kusebenza kuphela ngexesha lemini, ayisebenzisi indawo yelanga nangayiphi na indlela. Kweli nqanaba le ntaka isebenza njengomntwana ohambahambayo onekhampasi kodwa engenamaphu, de ilungelelane nendlela ize isebenzise obunye ubuchule bayo. Ngokuzama, ufunda iingongoma ezahlukeneyo zokubhekisela; le "mapping" yenziwa yi-magnetite-based receptors kwi-trigeminal system, exelela intaka ukuba unamandla kangakanani amandla ombane.
Njengoko iintaka zihamba phakathi kwemimandla ekuMntla weIkhweyitha nakuMazantsi eIkhweyitha, amandla emagnethi kwizibanzi ezahlukahlukeneyo azenza zikwazi ukuqonda ‘inkqubo yeengcambu ezimbini’ ngokuchane ngakumbi, nokwazi enoba sele ifikile na kwindawo ezisingise kuyo. Uphononongo lwakutsha nje lufumene unxibelelwano lwemithambo-luvo phakathi kwamehlo kunye "neqela le-N," icandelo lobuchopho bangaphambili elisebenza ngokufuduka, libonisa ukuba iintaka ngokwenene ziyakwazi "ukubona" umhlaba.
Ukubhadula
Iintaka kumsebenzi wazo wokufuduka zinokulahleka kwaye zenze ukubonakala kwazo ngaphandle kwendawo yazo eqhelekileyo yokuhambisa. Oku kusenokubangelwa kukudutyulwa ngokugqithisileyo kwendawo ekujoliswe kuyo, umzekelo ukubhabhela ukuya emantla kunendawo eqhelekileyo yokufuya. Le yindlela enokubangela ukunqaba okukhulu, kunye neentaka ezincinci ezibuyela umva njengoko zilahlekile kumakhulu eekhilomitha ukusuka kuluhlu. Inikwe igama lokufuduka okubuyela umva, okuthetha ukuba kwiintaka ezinjalo ukuphunyezwa ngokufanelekileyo kwenkqubo yofuzo kuyasilela.
Iindawo ezithile ziye zaduma njengeendawo zokubukela iintaka ngenxa yendawo ezikuyo. Umzekelo iPaki yeSizwe yasePoint Pelee eCanada, kunye neCape Spurn eNgilani. Ukuphambuka ekufudukeni kweentaka ezingahambiyo ngenxa yomoya kunokuzibonakalisa kwi "arribazón" yamanani amakhulu abafudukayo kwiindawo eziselunxwemeni.
Ukumiselwa kweThuku lokuFuduka
Kuye kwenzeka ukufundisa indlela yokufuduka kwiqela leentaka, umzekelo, njengenxalenye yeenkqubo zokubuyiselwa. Kulandela ulingo lweBranta canadensis (irhanisi laseKhanada), iinqwelomoya ezikhanyayo zasetyenziswa eUnited States ukuyalela iGrus americana (whooping crane) ebuyiselweyo kwiindlela ezikhuselekileyo zokufuduka.
Imiba yeNdalo kunye neEkholoji
Ukufuduka kweentaka ezahlukahlukeneyo kuxhomekeke kwizinto eziliqela. Imozulu yendawo yokuzalisa ifanelekile, kwaye iintlobo ezimbalwa ziyakwazi ukunyamezela ubusika obunzima belizwe laseCanada okanye enyakatho ye-Eurasia. Ngale ndlela sifumanisa ukuba i-Turdus merula (i-Eurasian blackbird) ifuduka ngokuyinxenye, ifuduka ngokupheleleyo eScandinavia, kodwa hayi ngamaqondo obushushu angakumbi asemazantsi Yurophu. Ubume bokutya kwe-primordial nabo bubalulekile.
Uninzi lwabo basebenza ngokutya kwizinambuzane ezingaphandle kweleenjiko ngabaphambukeli abahamba imigama emide, kungekho nto banokuyenza ngaphandle kokuya emazantsi ebusika. Ngamanye amaxesha izinto zilungelelaniswa kakuhle. I-stonechat iSaxicola rubetra (esemantla) evela eYurophu kunye neSaxicola maura (eyaseSiberia) evela eAsia ziintaka ezifudukela umgama omde ezihlala ebusika kwiindawo ezishushu, ngelixa isizalwane sazo esisondeleyo iSaxicola rubicola (eyaseYurophu okanye eqhelekileyo) yintaka ethi ihlala kuluhlu lwayo oluninzi, ihamba kuphela imigama emifutshane ukusuka kwindawo epholileyo emntla nasempuma.
Into enokwenzeka apha kukuba iintlobo zokuhlala zihlala zinokufumana i-clutch eyongezelelweyo. Uphononongo lwakutsha nje lubonisa ukuba abahambi abahamba umgama omde basuka eMzantsi Melika naseAfrika ngendaleko kunokuba babe bezalelwa kuMntla weIkhweyitha. Ngokwenene ziindidi zasemazantsi eziya emantla ukuze zizale kuneentlobo zasentla eziya emazantsi ebusika.
Uphononongo lwethiyori lubonisa ukuba ujiko kunye nojiko kwiindlela zabo zokubhabha okonyusa umgama wokubhabha ukuya kuthi ga kwi-20% kuya kuhlala kuguquguquka ukusuka kumbono we-aerodynamic, intaka ezilayisha ngokutya ukuwela umqobo obanzi ibhabha ngokusebenza kancinci. Nangona kunjalo, iintlobo ezithile zibonisa iisekethe zeendlela ezifudukayo ezibonisa ukwandiswa kwembali yoluhlu losasazo kwaye zikude ekubeni zibe zezona zilungileyo ngokweekholoji.
Umzekelo yinkqubo yokufuduka yabemi belizwekazi ngokubanzi beCatharus ustulatus (iSwainson's thrush), besiya ngasempuma ukunqumla uMntla Melika ngaphambi kokukhukuliseka emazantsi bedlula eFlorida ukuya kufika kumantla oMzantsi Merika. Le ndlela iqikelelwa ukuba ibe sisiphumo sokwandiswa koluhlu okwenzeka malunga neminyaka eyi-10.000 eyadlulayo. Ukujikeleza kusenokubangelwa ziimeko ezahlukeneyo zomoya, ubungozi bokuhlaselwa, kunye nezinye izinto.
Imo iyatshintsha
Utshintsho olukhulu lwemozulu kulindeleke ukuba luchaphazele ixesha lokufuduka, kwaye uhlalutyo lubonise iimpembelelo ezahlukeneyo ezibandakanya ukuhluka kwexesha lokufuduka, kwixesha lokuzala, kunye nokuncipha kwabantu.
Iimpembelelo zendalo
Inkqubo yokufuduka kweentaka nayo inegalelo ekudluliseleni ezinye iindidi, kuquka nezo ze-ectoparasites ezifana namakhalane kunye neentwala, ezinokuthwala ngaxeshanye ii-microorganisms eziquka ii-agent ezivelisa izifo zabantu. Kukho umdla omkhulu ekusasazekeni komkhuhlane weentaka kwihlabathi jikelele, nangona kunjalo iintaka ezifudukayo azibonwa njengengozi enkulu.Ezinye iintsholongwane ezigcinwe kwiintaka ngaphandle kwesiphumo esibulalayo, njengentsholongwane ye-West Nile, nangona kunjalo, zingasasazeka ngokufuduka kweentaka.Moya
Iintaka nazo zinokudlala indima ekwandeni kweepropagules zezityalo kunye neplankton. Amanye amarhamncwa asebenzisa ithuba lokuxinana kweentaka kulo lonke ixesha lokufuduka. Ilulwane iNyctalus lasiopterus (i-noctule enkulu) litya iintaka ezifuduka ebusuku.
Ubuchule bokufunda
Umsebenzi wokufuduka kweentaka uhlalutywe ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo zobuchule, apho ukukhala kweyona nto indala. Ukumakishwa ngemibala, ukusetyenziswa kwe-radar, ukubeka iliso kwi-satellite kunye nohlalutyo lwe-isotopi ezizinzile zeHydrogen (okanye i-Strontium) zezinye iindlela ezisetyenziselwa ukufunda ukufuduka. Enye inkqubo yokwalatha ukufuduka kwemihlambi isebenzisa imibhobho yesandisi-lizwi ejonge phezulu ukurekhoda iminxeba yemihlambi edlulayo xa ibhabha ebusuku. Ezi kamva ziye zihlalutywe elabhoratri ukuze kubalwe ixesha, amaza neentlobo zeentaka.
Uqheliselo oludala lokubala ukufuduka lubandakanya ukujonga inkangeleko yenyanga egcweleyo nokubala iisilhouette zemihlambi yeentaka njengoko ibhabha ebusuku. Uphononongo lokuziphatha okuqhelanisayo ngokwesiko lwenziwa kusetyenziswa ukwahluka kwesixhobo esibizwa ngokuba yi-Emlen's funnel, eyenziwe ngekheji ejikelezayo ekhuselweyo ngaphezulu ngeglasi okanye umnatha weengcingo ukuze isibhakabhaka sibonakale ngaphezulu. iplanethiriyamu okanye nezinye iinkuthazo ezilawulekayo zokusingqongileyo.
Indlela yokuziphatha kweentaka ngaphakathi kwesi sixhobo ijongwa ngokobungakanani kusetyenziswa ukuhanjiswa kwemizila eshiywa yintaka kwiindonga zekheji exeliweyo.Ezinye iinkqubo ezisetyenziswa kuphononongo lokubuyela ekhaya lwamahobe zisebenzisa icala apho intaka ibuthela khona elundini.
Izoyikiso kunye noLondolozo
Izinto ezenziwa ngabantu ziye zabeka esichengeni iintlobo ezininzi zeentaka ezifudukayo. Iindlela ezibandakanyekayo ekufudukeni kwazo zibonisa ukuba zihlala ziwela imida yezizwe kwaye imilinganiselo yokugcinwa kwazo ifuna intsebenziswano yamazwe ngamazwe. Izivumelwano ezahlukeneyo zamazwe ngamazwe ziye zasayinwa ukukhusela izilwanyana ezifudukayo, kuquka uMthetho weSivumelwano seeNtaka ezifudukayo wowe-1918 wase-United States (isivumelwano neCanada, iMexico, iJapan kunye neRashiya) kunye neSivumelwano seeNtaka zase-Afrika-Eurasian ezifudukayo zaManzi.
Ukudityaniswa kweentaka ecaleni kwendlela yokufuduka kunokubeka olu didi engozini. Ezinye zezona ntlobo zinomtsalane zokufuduka sele zinyamalele, eyona idume kakubi yiEctopistes migratorius (ihobe elihambayo). Ngalo lonke ixesha lokufuduka kwabo imihlambi ibiziikhilomitha eziyi-1,6 ububanzi kunye neekhilomitha ezingama-500 ubude, ithatha iintsuku ezimbalwa ukudlula kwaye iqulathe ukuya kutsho kwibhiliyoni yeentaka.
Eminye imimandla ebaluleke kakhulu ibandakanya iindawo zokuvalelwa okwethutyana phakathi kwemimandla yokufuya nobusika. Uhlalutyo lokubanjwa kwakhona kwabahambi abafudukayo abanokunyaniseka okuphezulu kwiindawo zabo zokuzala kunye nobusika abazange babonise ubudlelwane obuqinileyo obufanayo kunye neendawo zokubamba okwethutyana.
Imisebenzi yokuzingela ecaleni kweendlela zokufuduka inokubangela ukufa okukhulu. Abemi beGrus leucogeranus (iCrane yaseSiberia) ebusika e-Indiya behlile ngenxa yokuzingela kwiindlela zokuhamba, ngakumbi e-Afghanistan nakuMbindi Asia. Okokugqibela ezi ntaka zabonwa ngo-2002 kwindawo ezithanda ukuhlala kuyo ebusika eKeoladeo National Park.
Inkqubo yokufuduka kweentaka iye yachaphazeleka ngenxa yokuphakanyiswa kwezinto ezifana neentambo zombane, ii-windmills kunye namaqonga e-oyile aphesheya konxweme. Ukutshatyalaliswa kwemekobume yendalo ngokuguqula ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, nangona kunjalo, ngowona mceli mngeni mkhulu kwaye iindawo ezimanzi eziphantsi komhlaba, ezizindawo zokumisa ubusika zexeshana zeentaka ezifudukayo, zisongelwa ngaphezu kwayo yonke loo nto ngenxa yokuhanjiswa kwamanzi kunye namabango okusetyenziswa kwabantu.
Ubalo lwezeMbali lweeNtaka eziFudukayo
Ukususela kumaxesha amandulo isiganeko sokufuduka siye savelisa umdla, imibuzo kunye nokucamngca kuzo zonke iintlobo zabantu. Kuye kwaba ngumthombo wenkuthazo kwiimbongi, abakhafuli kunye nabakhafuli, abaqikelela ikamva ekubalekeni kweentaka, ukuphazamiseka kweentlobo ezithile kwakuyisibhengezo semfazwe okanye ukufika kobhubhane oluthile. Kwiidolophu ezithile zaseSpeyin ngokubhabha kweentaka, ikakhulu iinkonjane kunye neeswifts, kwakunokwenzeka ukuqikelela ukuba kuya kunetha okanye hayi.
Iimbongi zaziva zincoma ezona ntlobo zimibalabala neziculayo ezifana neenkonjane, iingwamza, ii-nightingales, njl. njl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . njenge « KuSan Blas uya kujonga ingwamza» okanye »E-Sant Frances bamba ibango kwaye uhambe» kwimeko yokuzingela i-thrush.
Esi siganeko satsala ingqalelo yeenkcuba-buchopho nezazinzulu zalo naliphi na ixesha, ekubeni uninzi lwazo lwaluzama ukuchaza ubukho nokunyamalala kweentaka ngamaxesha athile onyaka, isiganeko esasiphindaphindwa minyaka le. Yile ndlela iintetha ezivela ngayo kwiZibhalo eziNgcwele, malunga nokuhamba kweentaka ezinjengeengwamza, amahobe, iinkonjane kunye neemkreni.
Kwindawo esemagqagaleni yaseGrisi, isithandi sobulumko u-Aristotle kwisicatshulwa sakhe esithi “Imbali Yezilwanyana” wayiphinda le nto ngokubonisa ukuba ngenxa yempembelelo yengqele, ezinye iintlobo zezilwanyana zasabela ngokufudukela kwiindawo ezifudumeleyo, njengeekhreyini nee<em>pelicans, okanye ngokuhla zisuka. iintaba, ngelixa abanye bangena kuhlobo lokumangalisa baze balale emingxunyeni ukuze balale, ngendlela yokuba iinkonjane zizimele kwimingxuma apho zilahlekelwa khona iintsiba zazo, apho ziphuma khona entwasahlobo zinxibe iintsiba ezintsha.
Kwezinye iindidi, wavuma ukuba iirobin (Erithacus rubecula) ebusika zijike zibe redstart (Phoenicurus sp.) ehlotyeni. Kangangeenkulungwane ezininzi ezi ngcamango zazigqalwa njengeziyinyaniso kweyona mimandla iphakamileyo yezenzululwazi, ingafane isongezelele igalelo lokufika ngexesha elifana nelo likaOlaus Magnus wenkulungwane ye-XNUMX, owabonisa ukuba iinkonjane zezizwe ezisemantla zazintywila ngokwamaqela kumanzi emisele yamanzi. , ecebisa abalobi abaselula balo mmandla ukuba babashiye kwindawo enye ukuba banokubambisa ngeminatha yabo, kanye njengokuba abalobi bamandulo benjenjalo.
Kwakuloo nkulungwane inye apho isazi ngeentaka uPierre Belon waqalisa ukukubona ngokucacileyo ngakumbi, ebonisa ukuba kukho into eyenzekayo kwiintaka zelizwe lakowabo eFransi xa zaye zaphela ebusika, ukanti zavela kuMntla Afrika, kanye kwindawo apho ubusika buphela. ebengekho kwiinyanga ezidlulileyo. Olu qwalaselo lwagxekwa kakhulu ziingcali zelo xesha ezazixhasa ithiyori yokulala.
Ngenkulungwane ye-1.770, isazi ngendalo esibalulekileyo uLinnaeus wayixhasa ingcamango ka-Aristotle ephathelele ukufukama kwenkonjane eshedini ( Hirundo rustica ), owathi zihlala phantsi kophahla lwezindlu zaseYurophu, zintywila ebusika zize ziphinde zivele entwasahlobo. Ngomnyaka we-XNUMX, uBuffon wayikhaba le ngcamango, engqina kumsebenzi wakhe othi "Imbali yeNdalo yeeNyoni" ukuba zonke iintaka eziphantsi kwengqele, kude nokuphelelwa amandla, ngokuqinisekileyo zafa. Ekuphela kweentlobo zeentaka ezinengxelo yokufukama yiCaprimulgus vociferus, inja yaseUnited States.
Ngomnyaka we-1.950, isazinzulu uJ. Marshall wabamba imizekelo emithathu eTexas, apho waqhubeka ebonisa ukuba iintaka ezondla rhoqo zihlala zisebenza ebusika, kodwa zangena kwi-hibernation xa zizila ukutya usuku olunye okanye ezimbini. I-hibernation yathatha iiyure ezili-12 ukuya kwiintsuku ezi-4. Ubushushu bomzimba behle ukuya kutsho ku-6º C kwaye abakhange babonise zimpawu zangaphandle zokuphefumla.
Ukususela ngoko, izazinzulu ezininzi ziyayivuma inyani yenkqubo yokufuduka kweentaka, kodwa kusekho inkolelo yokuba i<em>cuckoos ( Cuculus canorus ), eyazisa intwasahlobo, iguqula i<em>sparrowhawks ( iAccipiter nisus ) xa kusondela ikwindla, okanye njengakwiidolophu zaseCastilla ( ESpeyin) bacinga ukuba ii<em>hoopoe ( iiUpupa epop ) zizimela emingxunyeni xa kufika ubusika, zisitya ilindle lazo. Namhlanje kuyavunywa ukuba ukufuduka akuyona into ekhethekileyo, kukho iindidi ezininzi, ezongeza ubunzima bayo, zenza kube nzima ukunika inkcazo enye.
Isiganeko sokufuduka asikho ngokukodwa kwiintaka, ukufunyanwa kokufuduka okuqhelekileyo kunye nemigama emide kwi-cetaceans, kumalulwane athile, itywina, i-reindeer, i-antelopes, ama-turtles aselwandle, amabhabhathane, iilobster, iintlanzi kunye nakwimibungu yaselwandle, ezi zihamba ngokuzenzekelayo. , inikwe ubume bayo obumangalisayo, ngenxa yeenkqubo zayo zengqondo-physiological.
Kucingelwa ukuba kwiXesha Eliphezulu iintaka ezazikho ngelo xesha sele zifuduka, kuba kukho iiyantlukwano phakathi kweendawo ezithandekayo nezingathandekiyo ngokwexesha lonyaka, nangona abaphengululi abaninzi becinga ukuba indawo yokuqala yokufuduka yenzeka kummandla womhlaba. Umkhenkce wexesha leQuaternary, ngenxa yeenguqu ezinzulu zemozulu zelo xesha. Ukufika komkhenkce owawugubungele inxalenye enkulu yamazwekazi akuzange kubangele ukuba iintaka zibhabha, kodwa inxalenye enkulu yazo yafa yingqele nendlala.
Bambalwa abantu ekubhaduleni kwabo abafika kwiindawo ezilunge ngakumbi bejoyina abantu basekuhlaleni. Kamva, yaye ingqamana nokuhlehla komkhenkce, zanda kwakhona ukuya ngasemantla, apho zazinyanzelwa ukuba zimke qho ebusika, ziqhelisela ukhetho oluqatha lwendalo olwaluthanda iintaka ezinentshukumisa enamandla ngakumbi yokufuduka.
Ukongeza kwezi ntaka, iintaka ezihlala phantsi ezisuka kwimimandla esemazantsi ngakumbi zaqokelelana, ezithe, ngokwendlela umkhenkce ubuya ngayo, zahlasela iindawo ezingahlali mntu entwasahlobo-ehlotyeni, ukuzishiya zinyanzeliswa yingqele nendlala ebusika.
Inani leentlobo ezifudukayo liphezulu kakhulu, liyakwazi phantse ukuqinisekiswa ukuba zonke iintlobo zenza iintshukumo eziphawulekayo ngexesha elithile lonyaka, umzekelo, ngaphakathi kweentaka ezidliwayo sifumana iindidi okanye i-subspecies eneendawo zabo zokuzalela emantla. ihemisphere, nabantu bebonke abafudukela emazantsi ebusika (iintlobo ezifudukayo) ukubuyela kunyaka olandelayo.
Kwezinye iindidi ezingama-42, kuphela ngabantu abahlala emantla okanye emazantsi kwiindidi ezisemazantsi abafudukayo ukuze bafumane ukutya okuninzi, abantu abadala bahlala behlala emantla okanye emazantsi kunabancinci (iintlobo ezithile ezifudukayo). Kwezi ntlobo ze-42, i-16 indlwane eMntla Melika kunye ne-2 kuphela eMzantsi Melika. E-Eurasia kukho iindidi ezingama-80 zeeraptors ezifudukayo ngokuyinxenye kunye ne-9 eMpuma Asia. E-Australia kukho iintlobo ezi-3 kunye ne-4 eMzantsi Afrika. Kuqikelelwa ukuba ikota yeentaka ezidla inyama ezisekhoyo zifuduka ngaphambi kokutshata.
KuMntla Merika kwiindidi zeentaka ezingama-650, ezingama-332 kuzo zifuduka kwaye ezingama-227 kuzo ziintlobo zehlathi kunye neebrashi. Kuqikelelwa ukuba phakathi kwe-500 kunye ne-1.000 yezigidi zabantu ezi ntlobo zezilwanyana ziya kwiindawo ezishisayo zaseMelika, apho zihlala khona iinyanga ezi-7-8. Ngokwendlela esihamba ngayo ngasemazantsi eMelika, inani leentaka lincinci, ngoko ke, i-51% yeentlobo ezifudukayo zifumaneka emahlathini aseMexico nakwiziqithi ezikumantla eCaribbean. I-30% kwi-peninsula yaseYucatan nakwiziqithi ezininzi zeCaribbean. 10-20% eCosta Rica, 13% ePanama, 6-12% eColombia kunye ne-4-6% e-Amazon yase-Ecuador, ePeru naseBolivia.
Ukufuduka kweeNtaka zasebusuku
Iindidi zeentaka ezihamba entwasahlobo-ezifudukayo zasebusuku zibonakala zimisa ngaphambili kunokuba zaziyi-2 kwiminyaka edlulileyo, eziye zabangelwa utshintsho lwemozulu. Ngokwento epapashwe kwiphephancwadi elithi 'Nature Climate Change', kuye kwaqinisekiswa ukuba iqondo lokushisa kunye nexesha lokuqala lokufuduka lilungelelaniswe kakhulu, kwaye utshintsho olukhulu kakhulu ekuqaleni kwalo lwenzeka kwimimandla eyafudumala ngokukhawuleza. Nangona kunjalo, olu tshintsho lwalungabonakali kangako ekwindla.
Kyle Horton, ovela kwiYunivesithi yaseColorado State (CSU); kunye nengcali yobuntlola eyenziweyo uDan Sheldon weYunivesithi yaseMassachusetts Amherst kunye noAndrew Farnsworth weCornell Laboratory of Ornithology bachaza indlela abahlalutye ngayo iminyaka engama-24 yedatha yerada evela kuLawulo lweSizwe lweOceanic kunye neAtmospheric (NOAA). ukufuduka kweentaka ebusuku.
UHorton uphonononga ubungakanani bophando, olulandelele iindlela zokuziphatha zokufuduka ebusuku zamakhulu eentlobo ezimele iibhiliyoni zeentaka, "njengoko kubalulekile" ekuqondeni nasekufundeni ngakumbi malunga neepatheni eziguquguqukayo zokufuduka.
"Ukubona ukwahluka kwexesha kwizikali zelizwekazi kuyonwabisa ngokwenene, ngakumbi xa kujongwa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuziphatha kunye nezicwangciso ezisetyenziswa zizilwanyana ezininzi ezicholwa yiradar," utshilo, esongeza ukuba utshintsho oluphawulweyo aluthethi ukuba abafuduki babambe isantya. nokutshintsha kwemozulu. UFarnsworth uthi iimpendulo zophando zeqela, okokuqala, imibuzo ephambili malunga neentaka kunye nokutshintsha kwemozulu.
“Ukufuduka kweentaka ubukhulu becala kuqhelekile njengendlela yokusabela kutshintsho lwemozulu. Sisiganeko sehlabathi lonke esibandakanya amawaka ezigidi zeentaka nyaka ngamnye. Kwaye akumangalisi ukuba iintshukumo zeentaka ziqhubeka nokutshintsha kwemozulu. Kodwa indlela iintaka ezasabela ngayo ngelo xesha lokutshintsha kwemozulu ngokukhawuleza yayigqalwa njengentsonkotha. Ukubamba izikali kunye nobukhulu bomsebenzi wokufuduka kwindawo kunye nexesha bekungenakwenzeka kude kube kumaxesha akutshanje ", ugxininisa.
UHorton uphawula ukuba ukukwazi ukufikelela kwidatha kunye necomputing yefu kwandise kakhulu amandla eqela ukushwankathela iziphumo. "Ukusetyenzwa kwayo yonke le datha, ngaphandle kwe-computing yefu, kuya kuthatha ngaphezulu konyaka oqhubekayo wokusetyenzwa kwedatha," utshilo. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iqela lakwazi ukuyifeza ngexesha elisondele kwiiyure ze-48.
Njengoko u-Sheldon ebonisa, ezi ntshukumo zeentaka zirekhodwe amashumi eminyaka ngenxa yothungelwano lwe-radar yeNkonzo yeMozulu eqhubekayo, kodwa kude kube kutshanje ezi datha azizange zifumaneke kubaphandi beentaka, ngokuyinxenye ngenxa yolwazi oluninzi kunye nokungabikho kolwazi. izixhobo zohlalutyo lwayo, olwenze kuphela izifundo ezilinganiselweyo.
Ngolu phando, iiNkonzo zeWebhu ye-Amazon zivumele ukufikelela kwidatha. Ukongeza, isixhobo esitsha, 'i-MistNet,' leyo uSheldon kunye noogxa bakhe e-UMass Amherst baphuhlise nabanye e-Cornell Lab, isebenzisa umatshini wokufunda ukufumana idatha yeentaka ukusuka kwirekhodi ye-radar kwaye ucofe kugcino lwe-radar oluqulathe amashumi eminyaka yedatha. Igama layo libhekisa “kwiminatha yenkungu” ecekethekileyo, ephantse ingabonakali, esetyenziswa ziingcali ngeentaka ukubamba iintaka ezifudukayo.
Njengoko uSheldon ephonononga, 'iMistNet' yenza ngokuzenzekelayo ukusetyenzwa kweseti enkulu yedatha esetyenzisiweyo ukubala ukufuduka kweentaka kwilizwekazi lase-United States ngaphezulu kweminyaka engamashumi amabini, ngeziphumo ezingaqhelekanga xa zithelekiswa nabantu abaziphethe ngesandla. . Isebenzisa ubuchule bokubona ngekhompyutha ukwahlula iintaka kwinto eyimvula emifanekisweni, umqobo ofanelekileyo owawucele umngeni kwiingcali zebhayoloji kangangamashumi eminyaka.
Uthi: “Ngaphambili, umntu omnye wayejonga umfanekiso ngamnye we<em>radar ukuze abone enoba kukho imvula okanye iintaka kusini na. "I-MistNet yaphuhliswa njengenkqubo yobukrelekrele eyenziweyo yokuqatshelwa kwepateni kwimifanekiso yeradar kwaye icinezela imvula ngokuzenzekelayo," utshilo.
Iqela likaSheldon lenze iimephu zangaphambili zeendawo kwaye nini ukufuduka kwenzeka kule minyaka ingama-24 idlulileyo kwaye yazityhalela ukuba zibonise, umzekelo, iindawo ezishushu zokufudukela eUnited States kwipaseji esentshona yoMlambo iMississippi. I-'MistNet' ikwavumela abaphandi ukuba babale isantya sokubhabha kunye nobukhulu bezithuthi zeentaka ezifudukayo.
UHorton uphawula ukuba ukungabikho kwenguqu kwiipatheni zokufuduka kwakumangalisa, nangona ukufuduka kuseyinto "embi kakhulu" kwezo nyanga. “Ngentlakohlaza, unokubona abantu abafudukayo behamba ngesantya esikhawulezayo ukuya kwindawo yokuzalela. Nangona kunjalo, ekwindla, uxinzelelo lokufikelela kwiindawo zasebusika alukho lukhulu, kwaye ukufuduka kudla ukuhamba ngokukhawuleza.
Umxube wezinto zenza kube nzima ukufunda ukufudukela kwelinye ilizwe, uyongeza. Ngeli xesha lonyaka, ezi ntaka azikhuphisani namaqabane azo yaye isantya sokufika kwindawo ezisingise kuyo siyekele. Ngokukwanjalo, kukho uluhlu olubanzi lweminyaka yeentaka ezifudukayo, ekubeni amantshontsho ekugqibeleni aqonda ukuba nawo kufuneka afuduke.
UHorton wongeza ukuba iziphumo zineempembelelo zokuqonda iipatheni zokufuduka kweentaka kwixesha elizayo, njengoko iintaka zixhomekeke ekutyeni kunye nezinye izixhobo ukwenza uhambo. Ngexesha lokutshintsha kwemozulu, ixesha lokudubula kweentyatyambo okanye ubukho bezinambuzane busenokungahambelani nokudlula kweentaka ezifudukayo.
Babonisa ukuba nokwahluka okufihlakeleyo kunokuba neziphumo ezibi kwimpilo yeentaka ezifudukayo. Kwixesha elizayo, abaphandi baceba ukwandisa uhlalutyo lwabo lwedatha ukubandakanya i-Alaska, apho utshintsho lwemozulu lunefuthe elibi kakhulu kunamazantsi angama-48.
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